Herbs in high producing organic grasslands – effect of management

In many organic grasslands herbs are established due to their expected beneficial properties for nutritive value and biodiversity. However, knowledge about grassland herbs is limited. Three mixtures were therefore established at different grazing/cutting and fertilization managements to examine the growth potential and feeding value. The competitiveness of the different species varied greatly. Chicory, plantain and caraway were competitive in mixtures with traditional grassland species. Lotus and salad burnet were weak competitors and chervil and sainfoin were very weak. The feeding value was also highly variable. Caraway had high digestibility of organic matter, also compared with the traditional grassland species, whereas plantain and salad burnet had lowest digestibility. The management, grazing, cutting, slurry and sward age, affected the proportion of the herb species. The proportion of caraway increased at cutting, slurry application and sward age. The proportion of plantain also increased at cutting but decreased at slurry application and sward age. The proportion of chicory increased with slurry application and decreased with sward age independently of cutting/grazing. The experiment showed that inclusion of herbs in the sward increased the biodiversity, made the herbage mass more diverse without affecting the dry matter yield

Bi-cropping fodder maize in an existing (grass)clover sward

Organic cultivation of fodder maize is still considered to be difficult. Weed pressure, soil structure degradation during harvest and low nutrient efficiency are some of the common problems. Directly sowing maize in a (grass)clover sward using special-ized drilling machines can solve these problems. In a bi-cropping experiment under organic conditions we found similar yields as the reference treatment (ploughing) when the maize was sown in a clover sward, the roots of the remaining sward were cut one week after sowing and an additional fertiliser was applied

Productivity and forage quality of a phytodiverse semi-natural grassland under various management regimes

Grassland management experiment (GrassMan) was set up in 2008 on a permanent semi-natural grassland in the Solling uplands, Germany. The main research focus is on the ecosystem functioning of the phytodiverse grassland (e.g. productivity and forage quality, water and nutrient fluxes). The aim of our study was to analyse the effects of vegetation composition and functional diversity on productivity and forage quality of the semi-natural permanent grassland. Variation in sward composition was achieved by herbicide application and resulted in three sward types: control sward type (without herbicide application), monocot-reduced and dicot-reduced. Further management factors included different nutrient input levels (without fertilizer and 180-30-100 kg/ha of N-P-K per year) and use intensity (cut once or three times a year). Functional diversity was determined by estimation of the yield shares for each species in the species composition and their specific functional characteristics. Forage quality was analysed by near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). While sward type influenced the forage quality, yield variation was explained mainly by the management regime

Comparison of two methods of herbage production measurement in continuously grazed hill pastures : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University

Herbage production of continuously grazed hill country pastures has traditionally been measured using grazing exclusion cages and a trim technique. Herbage production values obtained via this system differ from those of the surrounding grazed sward due to differences in sward structure. Herbage production of four farmlets with differing fertiliser treatments was measured by two methods over a full year. The first method involved a computer model which calculated herbage production from dry matter intake and cover change. Secondly, herbage production was measured via frame cuts, and the results of the two methods compared. The model measured less herbage production than the frames on an annual basis in all four fertiliser treatments (0.77 of frame average for the four fertiliser treatments). The ratio of model to frame herbage production varied widely during the year, with maximum ratios of model to frame herbage production of 1.6 occurring in autumn, and the minimum of -0.02 in winter. More herbage was produced under the frames in spring than in the grazed sward as a result of increased expression of reproductive tillers under the frames than in the grazed sward. Frames appear to underestimate herbage production in dry conditions as the trimming off of herbage at the placement of frames leads to lower levels of plant available water when compared to the surrounding sward. The low ratios are a result of the large amounts of dead material which build up in grazed hill pastures over summer and the rapid breakdown of this material when conditions are right, in this case in early-late winter. The results suggest that there are large differences in the annual, and seasonal pattern of herbage production between that measured off grazed swards and that measured via frames. This suggests that anyone wishing to calculate expected pasture supply using frame cut information must modify frame cut values to determine production of a continuously grazed sward

Migration, Poverty Reduction Strategies and Human Development

This paper focuses on the specific question of how Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) address migration and its potential to enhance human development at the national level. Based on a review of PRSPs completed since 1999, it argues that migration often remains poorly recognised or analysed in poorer countries in terms of its impacts on poverty reduction, whilst attitudes towards migration in these countries are often highly negative and/or based on limited evidence, especially in relation to internal migration. Analysis of how both internal and international migration are treated in PRSPs is also placed in the context of a broader understanding of the purpose of, and constraints faced by the PRS process. The paper goes on to highlight the extent to which in Sub-Saharan African countries, successive drafts of PRSPs have shown increasing attention to migration. It also considers how analysis of the problems and opportunities associated with different types of migration are converted into policy initiatives, highlighting the lack of good practice in terms of the incorporation of migration into human development policy.Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), internal migration, international migration, sub-Saharan Africa, analysis of migration

The effect of grass genotype and spring management on the nutritive value of mid-summer ryegrass swards

End of project reportThe objective of this project was to investigate the environmental, morphological and management factors that control reproductive initiation and development in Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) and their influence on mid-season sward quality. These factors were assessed on eight perennial ryegrass cultivars through spaced plant and plot studies. The first part of this project determined the effects of meteorological conditions and latitude on reproductive initiation and ear emergence of cultivars over two consecutive years. It was concluded that the critical day length requirement for reproductive initiation varies between perennial ryegrass cultivars and is independent of latitude and the normal range of conditions. Using this information a strong correlation (r2 = 0.94) was found between the critical day length for ear initiation and the ten year standardised ear emergence dates of the cultivars. This correlation was sufficiently robust to predict the critical initiation date for any perennial ryegrass cultivar on a UK recommended list or on the EU common catalogue by using their heading dates from the UK Plant Breeders Rights trials at Crossnacreevy. Large variation was observed for secondary initiation and re-heading between cultivars of similar and varying maturity, which is a major factor reducing mid-season sward quality. The propensity for initiation of re-heading was strongly influenced by the severity of defoliation (intense to very lax), but there was also evidence to suggest that critical day length post-solstice, may determine the latest date when further reproductive initiation could occur. Differences in plant growth modes were clearly evident as the sward structure, plant morphology and nutritive compositions differed significantly between cultivars during the mid-season. Defoliation management also significantly affected mid-season sward structure, morphology and nutritive composition. While the effect of defoliation height on the sward physical and chemical compositions was inconclusive, an intensive (30 mm) defoliation resulted in plants returning to a vegetative growth mode earlier compared to a lax (60 mm) defoliation treatment. It was observed that defoliation at a critical growth stage can significantly affect subsequent sward structures. Delaying initial spring defoliation resulted in a greater leaf proportion and swards of greater herbage quality in the plot study. This study, therefore, established the need for more detailed evaluation of cultivars by national testing authorities to allow farmers to select cultivars for grazing use that will optimise animal intake and performance

The effect of grazing pressure on rotationally grazed pastures in spring/early summer on the performance of dairy cows in the summer/autumn period

peer-reviewedTwo experiments (E1 and E2) were carried out to examine the effects of sward type (ST) on dairy cow performance. Applying grazing pressures (GP) in spring/early summer of 6.35, 4.24 and 3.53 cows/ha in E1, and 6.06, 5.05 and 4.03 cows/ha in E2, created the different ST. From summer to autumn, two stocking rates (SR) were applied to each sward, i.e., high (HR) and low (LR). As GP was reduced, the swards were characterised by progressively higher herbage mass of lower organic matter digestibility (OMD) and live leaf (LL) proportion, termed high (HQ), medium (MQ) and low (LQ) quality. There was no interaction between ST and SR for any animal performance variables except for grazing time. Mean diet OMD was 0.816, 0.803 and 0.794 (s.e. 0.0029) in E1, and 0.793, 0.780 and 0.772 (s.e. 0.0021) in E2, for HQ, MQ and LQ, respectively. The corresponding values for LL were 0.785, 0.740 and 0.709 (s.e. 0.0121) in E1, and 0.825, 0.790 and 0.759 (s.e. 0.0095) in E2. Milk yield per cow was 13.2, 12.2 and 10.6 (s.e. 0.55) kg in E1, and 18.4, 17.5 and 16.2 (s.e. 0.32) kg in E2, for HQ, MQ and LQ, respectively. Milk yields were 11.1 and 12.9 (s.e. 0.46) kg in E1, and 16.4 and 18.3 (s.e. 0.26) kg in E2, for HR and LR, respectively. There was no effect of ST or SR on milk composition or body weight gain. Herbage organic matter intake was 12.8, 12.5 and 11.1 (s.e. 0.28) kg in E2, for HQ, MQ and LQ, respectively. The corresponding values were 11.4 and 12.9 (s.e. 0.23) kg for HR and LR, respectively. The results show that milk yield of springcalving dairy cows is higher in summer when high rather than low stocking rates are applied in spring/early summer. The increased milk production is attributed to higher intake of herbage of higher nutritive value

The effect of grazing pressure on rotationally grazed pastures in spring/early summer on subsequent sward characteristics

peer-reviewedTwo experiments (E1 and E2) were carried out to examine the effect of grazing pressure (GP) in the early part of the grazing season on subsequent sward composition. Three GP levels, equating to 6.35, 4.24 and 3.53 cows/ha in E1, and 6.06, 5.05 and 4.03 cows/ha in E2, were used. The GP treatments were applied between April and July in E1, and April and June in E2. As GP decreased different swards, termed high (HQ), medium (MQ) and low (LQ) quality, were created. The post-grazing sward heights at the end of the GP periods were 6.6, 10.5 and 14.6 (s.e. 0.78) cm in E1, and 5.9, 8.8 and 11.4 (s.e. 0.39) cm in E2, for HQ, MQ and low LQ, respectively. Organic matter digestibility coefficients for herbage from the HQ, MQ and LQ swards during the subsequent grazing cycles averaged 0.770, 0.729 and 0.702 (s.e. 0.0055) in E1, and 0.761, 0.731 and 0.711 (s.e. 0.0038) in E2, respectively. Average live leaf proportions of the HQ, MQ and LQ swards were 0.583, 0.427 and 0.329 (s.e. 0.0193) in E1, and 0.600, 0.474 and 0.362 (s.e. 0.0155) in E2, respectively. GP had a significant effect on the proportion of grass area categorised as short grass (SG). The proportions of SG area in HQ, MQ and LQ were 0.711, 0.579 and 0.445 (s.e. 0.0106), respectively, in E1, and 0.700, 0.556 and 0.441 (s.e. 0.0133), respectively, in E2. Pre-grazing herbage mass (dry matter above 45 mm) was 2,065, 2,736 and 3,700 (s.e. 144.1) kg/ha for HQ, MQ and LQ, respectively, in E1 and 2,688, 3,735 and 4,722 (s.e. 145.0) kg/ha for HQ, MQ and LQ, respectively, in E2. The results show the importance of early season grazing pressure in creating a leafy high-digestibility sward for the remainder of the grazing season

Dinitrogen fixation and residue nitrogen of different managed legumes and nitrogen uptake of subsequent winter wheat [N2-Fixierung und residualer Stickstoff verschiedener Futterleguminosen sowie N-Aufnahme der Folgefrucht Winterweizen.]

Fixed nitrogen accumulated by legumes is the main nitrogen source for organic farming systems. Knowledge about the amount of fixed nitrogen, its pathways into forage yield, crop residues, soil-N and yield formation of the following crop is needed for designing crop rotations. Two field experiments were conducted in Northern Germany with differently managed (cut, mulched) legumes (red clover, alfalfa, white clover) in pure stands and various mixtures with two companion grasses (Lolium multiflorum, Lolium perenne) have been grown to determine N2-fixation, residue nitrogen and N-uptake of subsequent crops. Cropped grass/legume reached higher N2-fixation than mulched. While green manure grass/legume left up to 280 kg ha-1 of N in mulch, stubble and roots on the field, most cropped grass/legume mixtures left less than 110 kg N ha-1 in crop residues. Pure legume swards or legume rich mixtures showed higher N2-fixation than grass rich mixtures. N-uptake in late autumn and at maturity of the subsequent wheat was strongly correlated to the legume content in DM-yield

The effect of herbage mass and allowance on herbage intake, diet composition and ingestive behaviour of dairy cows

peer-reviewedAn experiment was conducted to examine the effects of herbage mass [HM, based on regrowth intervals of 35 (T) and 21 (S) days] and herbage allowance [HA, 20.2 (H) and 12.7 (L) kg organic matter (OM)/cow] on herbage OM intake (OMI), dietary composition and ingestive behaviour of dairy cows. Four groups of three cows each were used in a 4 × 4 greco-latin square design along with four oesophageal-fistulated cows. The treatment periods were 7 days and the squares (SQ) were repeated three times in a balanced way. The experiment was conducted from 11 April to 3 July 1986. The HM (organic matter) above 3 cm was 3064, 3472 and 3515 kg/ha for T and 2395, 1113 and 2396 kg/ha (s.e. 94) for S, for SQ 1 to 3, respectively. Organic matter digestibility (OMD) was 842, 799 and 778 g/kg for T, and 851, 842 and 804 g/kg for S (s.e. 0.9), for SQ 1 to 3, respectively. Sward height (cm) after grazing was 8.5 and 7.6 for T and S, and 9.6 and 6.5 for H and L (s.e. 0.18), respectively. OMI was 15.2, 14.8 and 15.2 kg for TH, 12.3, 11.9 and 10.7 kg for TL, 15.8, 14.8 and 14.5 kg for SH and 11.9, 11.1 and 11.2kg for SL (s.e. 0.24), for SQ 1 to 3, respectively. The OMD of the diet was closely related to proportion of live leaf in the diet and sward OMD. Average biting rate increased with decreasing HM (R2 0.65). Grazing time was 8.93, 9.11 and 9.06 h for TH, 8.13, 7.96 and 7.91 h for TL, 8.96, 9.59 and 9.29 h for SH and 8.56, 9.36 and 8.52 h for SL (s.e. 0.155), for SQ 1 to 3, respectively. Multiple regression analysis showed that OMI was significantly related to HM (+0.48 kg/t), OMD of the sward (+0.18 kg per 10 g/kg) and pre-experimental milk yield (+0.37 kg/kg) (R2 0.89). The increase in OMI with potential milk yield, as indicated by pre-experimental yield, accounted for 0.80 of the supplementary energy requirements.National Development Plan 2000-200