Can plastic waste management be a novel solution in combating the novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)? A short research note

The year 2020 has been noted to be one of major calamity the world over, in which the majority of efforts in research and development have been dedicated towards combating the threat of the novel Coronavirus (COVID-19). Ever since the announcement of COVID-19 as a pandemic, such efforts were dedicated towards the research of its spread and vaccination. Yet still, the world might reach a resolution via an environmental solution that various entities have overlooked, with a plethora of environmental benefits vis-à-vis waste management. In this short communication, the possibility of using plastic solid waste as a substrate to employ copper, and copper alloys and their nanocomposite nanopowders to be used as permanent surface protective coats, is presented. The fact that we present such materials to be of waste origin, is an added value advantage to their beneficial advantage of developing various commodities and products that could be used in our daily lives. Furthermore, the fact that such recyclable materials are susceptible to antiviral properties and chemicals, is an added value that we should not neglect

Life Cycle Assessment of Fishing and Aquaculture Rope Recycling

In this chapter, we assess the environmental footprint of the production of recycled plastic granulate made of waste ropes from the fishing/aquaculture industries. The end-of-life treatment of waste fishing and aquaculture gear is an important factor in solving the marine plastic crisis. The improvement of waste management on land is thought to be one of the key strategies for tackling marine plastic challenges. Moreover, in terms of the circular economy, recycling is viewed as a more desirable end-of-life treatment than incineration and landfilling. Meanwhile, it is important to understand the environmental impacts of recycling processes to avoid problem shifting. The publication of environmental impact data on the recycling of fishing/aquaculture gear can assist policy makers and waste managers, amongst other stakeholders, in making decisions about end-of-life treatments. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a standardised methodology for the assessment of the environmental impacts of a product across its full life cycle, from raw material acquisition through to end-of-life phases. In this chapter, we perform an LCA of fishing and aquaculture rope recycling. We begin with the acquisition of waste polypropylene/polyethylene (PP/PE) ropes from the fishing and aquaculture industries, move to the production of recycled granulate and end with delivery to the customer. We assess the environmental footprint of 1000 kg of PP/PE granulate across a range of impact categories, including global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP). The core processes account for 40% of the total GWP emissions with the upstream and downstream processes accounting for 30% of the emissions each. A critical contributor to GWP emissions from PP/PE rope recycling comes from diesel production and consumption across the product life cycle. Finally, the global warming potential, acidification potential, and eutrophication potential of recycled PP/PE are significantly lower when compared to virgin PP and PE.publishedVersio

Toughened commercial poly( l -lactide) (PLLA) using degradable and recyclable poly(ester- alt -ether)- b -PLLA †

A more sustainable future for plastics relies on the development of high performance materials that are renewably sourced, recycled without suffering losses in performance, and which are, ultimately, degradable to small molecules. Poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) is the largest scale commercial bio-derived plastic, and fulfills many of the above criteria, but is too brittle. Tackling this limitation could allow it to become a substitute for some engineering petrochemical plastics like high impact polystyrene (HIPS) or poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) (ABS) which are not recyclable and cannot be easily defossilised. This study focusses on a series of new block polymers as rubber tougheners enabling such PLLA ductility. These block polymers are efficiently synthesised using controlled polymerizations. They are also fully chemically recyclable and biodegradable. The series of new poly(ester-alt-ethers)-b-PLLA show controllable monomer compositions, block ratios and molar mass. They are synthesised using a one-pot switchable catalysis from epoxides, anhydrides and l-lactide, using a well-controlled Zr(iv) catalyst, which selectively forms the poly(ester-alt-ether)-b-PLLA in high yield. The block polymers are blended, using systematically controlled weight percentages, with commercial, semi-crystalline PLLA (Mn = 103 kg mol−1, Đ = 1.81). The PLLA blends are comprehensively evaluated using thermal analyses, melt rheology, dynamic mechanical analyses and by tensile mechanical analyses – all techniques show the promise of the new rubber tougheners in improving PLLA properties. The best performing material, featuring 15 wt% block polymer (11 wt% poly(ester-alt-ether)), combines the beneficial high modulus (E = 3.1 ± 0.1 GPa) and high tensile strength (σ = 48.7 ± 1.2 MPa) of PLLA with higher ductility (7× higher than PLLA, εB = 24.5 ± 4.6%) and greater tensile toughness (8× PLLA, UT = 10.8 ± 2.2 MJ m−3). Its mechanical properties are improved without compromise to the PLLA thermal properties, as evidenced by very similar glass transition temperature, crystallinity and melt temperature. The PLLA/block polymer blend (15 wt%) shows a lower melt viscosity (3789 Pa s−1vs. 10 335 Pa s−1 for PLLA) and earlier onset of shear thinning, facilitating its processing. The PLLA blends are efficiently chemically recycled, using a solid state catalysed process, to l-lactide (87% yield, 100% l-LA selectivity) and the starting poly(ester-alt-ethers)-b-PLLA, facilitating its reuse in blending. The blend components, including the block polymer, are enzymatically degraded, at 37 °C, using Humicola insolens Cutinase over 25 days (HiC, trademark name Novozyme 51032). The properties of these toughened PLLA samples are discussed as replacements for poly(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (ABS) and high impact polystyrene (HIPS). In contrast to these petrochemicals, the PLLA blends are bio-derived, fully recyclable and enzymatically degradable after use

Towards a closed loop recycling of room temperature infusible thermoplastic CFRPs

In dieser Arbeit wird als Beispiel für den neuartigen Werkstofftypus, der bei Raum-temperatur infundierbaren thermoplastischen Matrixmaterialien ein Recycling- und Wiederverwendungskonzept für Kohlenstofffaserverbundverkstoffe auf Basis einer Eliummatrix entwickelt. Dafür wird ein auf dem Lösen der Matrix bei Raumtempe-ratur in Aceton basierendes Recyclingverfahren vorgestellt, welches es ermöglicht sowohl die Matrix als auch die Faserhalbzeuge zurückzugewinnen. Die Rezyklate werden umfassend analysiert und mit Neumaterialien verglichen. Anschließend werden verschiedene Konzepte zur Nutzung der recycelten Matrix und Fasern für die erneute Herstellung von Faserverbundwerkstoffen evaluiert. Dabei wird einer-seits die erneute Nutzbarkeit sowohl der Faserhalbzeuge als auch von Teilen der Matrix in der Produktion von eliumbasierten Faserverbunden nachgewiesen. Ande-rerseits wird auch die Nutzung recycelter Halbzeuge mit anderen Matrixmaterialien betrachtet. Dies ermöglicht eine universelle Nutzung der recycelten Halbzeuge außerhalb der betrachteten Wertschöpfungskette und erhöht damit maßgeblich den Wert und die Absatzmöglichkeiten dieser. Abschließend erfolgt eine ökonomische und ökologische Betrachtung der entwi-ckelten Recycling- und Wiederverwendungsprozesse. Dabei kann gezeigt werden, dass die Schließung der Recyclingkreislaufs sowohl die CO2 Emission als auch die Kosten über den gesamten Produktlebenszyklus maßgeblich verringern kann.In this thesis, a recycling and reuse concept for carbon fibre composites is devel-oped for composites processed with the novel, room temperature infusable thermo-plastic matrix - Elium. For this purpose, the first works on a recycling process based on the dissolution of the matrix in acetone at room temperature is presented, which allows the recovery of the polymerised matrix and of the fibres in the un-damaged form of semi-finished products (scrims). The recyclates are extensively analysed and compared with virgin materials. Subsequently, different concepts for the reuse of the recycled matrix (for reduced virgin material usage) and universal applicability of the fibres with other resin systems for the further production of composites have been investigated. On the one hand, the reusability of the scrims and parts of the matrix in the production of elium-based composites is demonstrat-ed wherein the 2nd generation composites showed comparable bulk properties to its virgin/1st generation counterparts. On the other hand, the reuse of recycled scrims with other matrix systems have also been investigated. This enables universal use of the recycled scrims outside the Elium composite value chain and thus signifi-cantly avoids downsizing of the recycled product. Finally, an economic and ecological analysis of the developed recycling and reuse processes completes the experimental thesis. It can be shown that closing the recy-cling loops can significantly reduce CO2 emissions and costs over the entire product life cycle

Rubber-polymer blends: a thesis in polymer engineering

This study examines composite materials prepared from ground recycled tires (tire crumb) and post-consumer recycled high density polyethylene (HDPE). An initial set of composites was prepared from as-received tire crumb and HDPE recyclate containing 040% tire crumb in 10% increments, using injection moulding. The elastic modulus and tensile strength were found to decrease linearly with increasing tire crumb content. Addition of tire crumb to recycled HDPE caused produced an immediate reduction in the strain to failure with a progressively more modest decrease as the tire crumb content was increased. The impact toughness decreased more linearly with increasing tire crumb fraction. Cross sections of the composites showed that the tire crumb particles were in intimate contact with the matrix but post mortem examination of the fracture surface of the impact test specimens indicated that the level of bonding had been poor. A second set of composites was a prepared from 10% tire crumb. The tire crumb was first given an oxidative treatment in hot aqueous copper chloride at concentrations from 0-5 wt% Cu Ch at 50 or 100°C for 6 or 12 hours. The composites were injection moulded with an addition of 0.5 wt% dicumyl peroxide (DCP). These composites showed good bonding between the tire crumb and the recycled HDPE even at concentrations of 0% of the Cu 2+ oxidation catalyst. The addition of DCP was found to substantially reduce the modulus of neat HDPE and this reduction was reflected in the modulus of the composites. It was found that the DCP concentration could be reduced to 0.02% without adversely affecting the composites

Toughening sustainable thermoplastics with poly(ester-alt-ethers): catalyst development, polymer blends and recycling

Strong, tough and chemically resistant plastic materials, that are derived from petroleum, are responsible for a significant amount of CO2 emissions, and break down to form nano and micro-plastics, which are now pervasive in the environment. A more sustainable future for plastics relies on the development of high-performance materials that are renewably sourced, recycled without suffering losses in performance, and which are, ultimately, degradable to small molecules. This thesis aims to develop simple, low-cost strategies to improve the mechanical properties of the sustainable thermoplastics poly(L-lactide) (PLLA, from starch-rich biomass) and poly(cyclopentene carbonate) (PCPC, derived from CO2), as alternatives to current commercial petrochemically-sourced plastics. The goal is to improve the material’s toughness and ductility, without compromising their thermal properties, mechanical strength or sustainability. The strategy is to use block polymers—employing elastomeric, (bio)degradable poly(ester-alt-ethers)—in polymer blending, with high molar mass PLLA and PCPC. The blend properties, processing and recycling are explored. The end-of-life options were investigated and include either mechanical or chemical recycling, as well and enzymatic degradation. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to a circular plastics economy and presents the target alternative thermoplastics, PLLA and PCPC. Prior attempts to use polymer blending to improve mechanical properties are discussed, and, the strategy used in this work to apply amphiphilic block copolymers is outlined. The chemistry of poly(ester-alt-ether) materials and opportunities to make them by controlled polymerisation catalysis is described. Chapter 2 reports upon an innovative and controlled polymerisation catalysis to make poly(ester-alt-ethers). The ring-opening copolymerisation of anhydrides (A), epoxides (B) and cyclic ethers (C), using a Zr(IV) catalyst, produces new families of either ABB or ABC type poly(ester-alt-ethers). A range of commercial epoxide and anhydride monomers are used to make poly(ester-alt-ethers) with variable compositions and structures. The catalysis is examined for its selectivity for poly(ester-alt-ethers) linkages, rate and polymer thermal properties are determined. The aim is to identify candidates for polymer blending studies. Copolymers are synthesised with molar mass values from 4 to 11 kg mol−1 and mostly with narrow and monomodal molecular weight dispersity. The poly(ester-alt-ethers) are amorphous, with thermal decomposition temperatures from 270-344 °C and glass transition temperatures from −50-48 °C, depending on their compositions. Post-polymerisation techniques are explored to further expand the properties available. Chapter 3 reports the synthesis of block polymers comprising poly(ester-alt-ethers)-b-PLLA as rubber tougheners to improve PLLA ductility. The block polymers are blended with commercial, semi-crystalline PLLA. The best performing material, featuring 15 wt% block polymer (11 wt% poly(ester-alt-ether)), has a similar high modulus (E = 3.1 ± 0.1 GPa) and high tensile strength (σ = 48.7 ± 1.2 MPa) to PLLA, but, much higher ductility (7 x higher than PLLA, εB = 24.5 ± 4.6 %) and greater tensile toughness (8 x higher than PLLA, UT = 10.8 ± 2.2 MJ m-3). Its mechanical properties are improved without compromise to the PLLA thermal properties, as evidenced by very similar glass transition temperatures, crystallinity and melt temperatures. The PLLA/block polymer blend (15 wt%) shows a lower melt viscosity and earlier onset of shear thinning, than PLLA, facilitating its processing. The blends are efficiently chemically recycled, using a solid-state catalysed process, to L-lactide (87% yield, 100 % L-LA selectivity) and the starting poly(ester-alt-ethers)-b-PLLA. The blend components, including the block polymer, are all enzymatically degraded. The properties of the PLLA materials are compared with current commercial thermoplastics, identifying them as replacements for materials like polystyrene (PS), poly(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (ABS) or high impact polystyrene (HIPS). Chapter 4 examines different catalysts for poly(ester-alt-ether) synthesis. A series of ML2(OiPr)2 complexes are compared in terms of their rate, selectivity and control of molar mass distribution. Changing the ancillary ligand had only minor effects on catalysis, and, Zr(IV) or Hf(IV) complexes outperform the Ti(IV) analogues. Also, a series of commercial Zirconium(IV) ZrX4 catalysts are investigated, where X = (OiPr)4(HOiPr), (OEt)4, (Oct)4, (Cl)4, (NMe2)4, (Bn)4 and (Bn)4 + (HOBn)2. These catalysts show a range of selectivities for poly(ester-alt-ethers) (40-95 %) and are 1-3 times faster than the heteroleptic group (IV) complexes. A non-initiating commercial Hf(Bn)4 is used to make poly(ester-alt-ethers) with a variable degrees of polymerisation, functional end-groups and architectures. Chapter 5 reports upon block copolymers to improve the properties of poly(cyclopentene carbonate) (PCPC). High molar mass PCPC (Mn = 82.2 kg mol-1, Đ = 1.58) is synthesised from the ROCOP of CO2 and cyclopentene oxide (CPO). It is toughened with diblock copolymers of the form poly(ester-alt-ethers)-b-PC (where PC = PCPC or PCHC). With as little as 5 wt% additive, the ductility of the blends improves substantially, with the elongation at break increasing by 6 times (82.1 ± 10.1 %) and tensile toughness increasing by 5 times (28.1 ± 4.1 MJm-3). Importantly, this occurs without changing the thermal properties (Tg = 88 °C), or compromising mechanical strength (38.1 ± 2.1 MPa) or modulus (2.6-2.7 GPa). The PCPC blends are mechanically recycled and chemically recycled to epoxides, CO2 and the poly(ester-alt-ether)-b-PC. Further, all blend components are enzymatically degraded. The blend thermal-mechanical properties suggest they may replace acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) or high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), which are current petrochemically derived materials that are very hard/impossible to recycle. Chapter 6 summarises the work, and outlines future directions to build upon it. Chapter 7 includes experimental details for chapters 2-5. Chapter 8 is an appendix encompassing all supplementary information (tables, figures and schemes) to support the results discussed in chapters 2-5

Municipal zero waste methodology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Management at Massey University, Turitea Campus, Palmerston North, New Zealand

This research originally undertook an extensive literature review, in order to develop a deeper understanding of how the phenomenon of zero waste interrelates with the alternative sustainability-framed movements responding to the crisis of waste and the failures of conventional waste management theory and practice. This initial work was translated into a series of publications that provide content for the foundational chapters (1. Literature review 2, Background/Context and 3. Methodology) of this thesis and provided the basis for identifying the problem statement, research objectives and hypothesis. A key focus of this research involved examining the critique of the zero waste movement, in particular the extreme assertion that, in a municipal context, zero waste is a chronic failure/impossible/doomed and is a super-mega proposition for which there is no blueprint or methodology. The value-proposition for research addressing this critique was established by examining the real-world New Zealand (zero) waste case-setting where a combination of misinformation, lobbying, and policy capture resulted in an abandonment of zero waste and a consequent regression in KPIs of the prior New Zealand Waste Strategy (NZWS:2002) entitled Towards Zero Waste and a Sustainable New Zealand. The published outputs of this research make the case that zero waste approaches can and should be scientific, practically successful, measurable and evidenced, a good economic investment, socially and culturally beneficial, framed in a continuum of learning and evolution, and democratically popular. Additionally, this research has provided new insights to the extreme scope, challenge, and intensely complex disciplinarity of the waste → zero waste transition spectrum. This has enabled visualising and reinterpreting the significant, but largely unmet interdisciplinary requirement of (zero) waste management, as a critical barrier to progress. Based on a three-stage review of policy analysis in (zero) waste management research, a specific methodology of mixed methods content analysis (formally annotated as MMR HCA-T-MZWM quant + QUAL(quant)) was designed to test and explicate the disputed existence of municipal zero waste methodology (MZWM). Detailed quantitative findings converge in the formation of an extensive hybrid embedded qualitative written narrative result that is the illustrated in four final graphic summary illustrations of the hypothesised MZWM. This Ꝏ infinity – continuum model offers a new conception of dynamic integrated elements and interoperative, interdisciplinary clusters comprising the MZWM. The Ꝏ infinity – continuum MZWM model embodies the disruptive, hyper-aspiration of zero waste in seeking maximum transition into a sustainable circular economy, and in extent and detail appears commensurate with the cited super-wicked complexity of waste issues. The Ꝏ infinity – continuum MZWM model provides a simple, yet meaning-laden graphic, abductive bridge between the UNSDG imperative and zero waste’s innovation seeking and transformational ideals. The MZWM represents a key foundation for the critical next-step opportunity to develop an evaluation framework (ideally as an internationally agreed research framework encompassing further learning and experience) to systematically measure and enhance the performance of future municipal zero waste programmes

Marine Plastics: Innovative Solutions to Tackling Waste

This open access book reflects aims of the Blue Circular Economy (BCE) project, which focused on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) aiming to create value using circular economy concepts related to products and services within fishing gear recycling in the Northern Periphery and Arctic (NPA) area. Cluster establishment and operation were carried out in collaboration with academia, industry and government agencies following a triple-helix approach. Discarded fishing gear constitutes a large part of marine plastics. Preventing future discharge of fishing gear into the ocean is a vital step in combating plastic pollution. Circular economy is one of the tools in the European Green deal, targeting waste minimisation. Closing the loop for waste fishing nets by transferring them to a resource could be a solution for preventing discharge at sea: exploring this opportunity is at the core of this book

Applications of Recycled Plastics and Life Cycle Assessment

Polymers, a unique invention of last century, have influenced the everyday aspects of human life. However, its widespread usage and applications, the non-biodegradable characteristics of polymer materials, and waste mismanagement have caused permanent negative damage to the environment. Plastic debris is found everywhere – including forests, river streams, lakes, coastal lines, ocean surfaces and even the seabed. It is affecting humans and is reported as a cause of death to wildlife, birds and sea animals. When plastic waste was understood and managed well, plastic wastes could be utilised as a high value material. However, plastic waste management and recycling operations are not simple processes owing to their multitude of complexities directly or indirectly determining the environment and economic sustainability of an end-of-Life (EOL) operation. Life cycle assessment (LCA), a cradle-to-grave technique, is a holistic methodology to evaluate and assess the environmental impact of a product or a process. This research is based on conducting LCAs on various applications of recycled plastics to estimate their environmental impacts. LCA was conducted on composites containing recycled plastics to estimate environmental impacts when utilised in the construction and automotive markets in replacing virgin composites or traditional materials like wooden products. Composites based on recycled plastics were found to produce significant environmental benefits in the construction industry. Automotive applications, in a best-case scenario, were found to have an environmental profile similar to virgin material. However, combinations of construction and automotive applications are one of potential opportunities to increase the consumption rate of recycled plastics. The choice of LCIA methods was found to have a significant effect on the LCA outcome. Various contributions leading to different outcomes are evaluated and addressed