The different dimensions of livelihood impacts of Payments for Environmentals Services (PES) schemes: A systematic review

Through a systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature, this paper analyzes evidence of the livelihood impacts of Payments for Environmental Services (PES). Forty-six studies assessed PES livelihood impacts. The assessments presented more positive livelihood impacts than negative ones, focusing on financial benefits. Non-monetary and non-material impacts of PES were largely understudied. Most reviews focused on ES providers, hindering the understanding of broader societal impacts. The review yielded examples where participants lost from their participation or where improvements in one livelihood dimension paralleled deterioration in another. Consequently, we identified key research gaps in: i) understanding the social and cultural impacts of PES, ii) evaluating environmental and economic additionality from improving other ES at the expense of cultural ones, iii) and assessing PES impacts in terms of trade-offs between multiple livelihood dimensions. Moreover, increased knowledge is needed on the impact of PES on changes in household expenditure and choice, and on trade-offs between household income and inequality in ES provider communities. Finally, if PES schemes are implemented to sustainably improve livelihoods, targeting disaggregated populations, understanding equity and social power relations within and between ES providers and users, and better monitoring and evaluation systems that consider locally relevant livelihood dimensions are needed

Sustainable development : a model Indonesian SRI co-operative : this research paper is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, Massey University, New Zealand

This research report explores how ‘sustainable livelihoods’ have been achieved at a model cooperative using the ‘System of Rice Intensification’ named SIMPATIK. To conduct the research a novel template was developed. The framework was required following a review of sustainable livelihood literature which found deficiencies with the ‘sustainable livelihoods framework’, particularly its treatment of equity, social capital, culture and agro-ecology which disqualified the framework as an appropriate approach for the research. Amekawa’s (2011) ‘Integrated Sustainable Livelihoods Framework’ which synthesises agro-ecology and the sustainable livelihoods framework is then discussed. Further work is then presented on social capital which this paper argues has a critical role in facilitating access to livelihood capitals. A discussion of the significance of culture then follows to underline its importance as a form of livelihood capital. The research then introduces an operational model that is appropriate to the local cultural, institutional and geographical context to demonstrate how livelihood capitals are linked to livelihood outcomes, a model I have labelled the ‘Apt-Integrated Sustainable Livelihoods Framework’. This framework is then informed through field research at the SIMPATIK co-operative. Impact pathways through ‘synergetic forms of social capital’ and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) are shown indeed to lead to sustainable livelihood outcomes for research participants. The ‘sequencing’ of livelihood capitals is seen to be critical and the research culminates in the development of a ‘SRI Co-operative Template for Sustainable Livelihoods’; a transferable model that shows how SRI can be promoted as a sustainable livelihood strategy

Livelihood Approaches and Fisheries Management in the Lower Mekong Basin

Known as livelihood approaches, this new way of looking at fisheries management is becoming increasingly common, particularly with development agencies and other organisations. However, there is a perception that the concept of livelihoods and livelihood approaches is not well understood or taken-up by policymakers and fisheries managers. Recognising this, the technical advisory Body for Fisheries Management (TAB) commissioned the STREAM initiative to review previous studies that used livelihood approaches to evaluate fisheries and fishing communities in the Lower Mekong Basin. This information serves to illustrate the characteristics, benefits and practical use of livelihood approaches in fisheries management and development. STREAM also made a series of recommendations that would help the uptake and implementation of these approaches in the future

Livelihood Strategies and Environmental Management Practices in Northern Thailand National Park Communities : A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Natural Resource Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

In Northern Thailand, the establishment of national parks is at the forefront of efforts to achieve biodiversity conservation and environmental management while providing socio-economic benefits to society. However, national parks regulations and development interventions have created both opportunities and constraints for the Indigenous hill tribe communities living within the national parks. These communities have, out of necessity, adapted and developed their livelihood strategies and environmental management practices to maintain their socio-economic welfare and ecological sustainability. This study employed Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) as a mixed qualitative research strategy to investigate the livelihood strategies and environmental management practices in Doi Suthep-Pui, Doi Inthanon, and Ob Luang National Parks in Northern Thailand. The main research methods used were interviews, observation, and document analysis to support data that gained from the PRA methods. The aim of this study is to gain insight into the livelihood strategies and environmental management practices of six Indigenous hill tribe communities living in the parks. Interviews were conducted with villagers, national park officials, academics, and representatives from non-government organisations and tourism agencies. The interview data was also analysed to investigate how co-management initiatives and livelihood development projects by national parks officials and external organisations influence Indigenous communities’ livelihood strategies. It was found that the livelihood strategies of the Indigenous hill tribe communities encompass a diverse combination of activities related to their social and ecological relationships in order to ensure sustained socio-economic well-being. Communities engage in sustainable agricultural practices, community-based natural resource management activities and community-based ecotourism enterprises as their significant livelihood strategies. However, while there has been some consultation, co-management, and collaborative policy-making between government and local communities, further improvement of transparency, consistency and accountability is needed. It is argued that greater community empowerment and participation in natural resource management decisions is crucial to enhance both sustainable livelihoods and environmental conservation efforts within Northern Thailand’s national parks

Poverty, Livelihoods and War Legacies: the Case of Post-War Rural Kosovo

This paper examines the effects of war on livelihood portfolios and welfare outcomes of rural households in Kosovo using the 2000 Kosovo Living Standards Measurement Survey. We question to what extent the legacy of war was experienced through selection into low return livelihood activities or through decreases in welfare generally. We first identify portfolios using a clustering algorithm which groups households pursuing similar combinations of activities. The emerging clusters are comparable to those described in more qualitative studies for Kosovo in the immediate post-conflict period. We then examine the determinants of livelihood portfolio choice and the consequences of these for welfare outcomes, controlling for war legacies and selection into specific portfolios. We find evidence of a relationship between a household’s war experience and their livelihood choices and that war exposure has different impacts on household welfare depending on the livelihood portfolio adopted. We also identify significant selection effects on welfare for three out of four of our livelihood clusters, highlighting the fact that selecting into a specific portfolio raised or lowered welfare above expected levels.

Solutions for the Poorest: Insights on Savings Behavior of Clients

The Livelihood Pathways for the Poorest project, implemented in Gaya District, Bihar, India, with support from the Rockefeller Foundation, aimed to demonstrate a model that could help the ultra-poor escape poverty through the provision of integrated financial, livelihood and risk management services. Savings mobilization formed the core of the project and anchored crucial activities, such as linkages with formal financial institutions and the introduction of income generating activities.Grappling with poverty at its harshest these clients are willing to set aside a tiny portion of an already low and unstable income for future consumption. What made them willing to save, what determined the amount they saved and what drove this need to save? Do they save in lump-sums and how regularly? How likely are they to save? These and more questions drove the quest to decode the savings behavior of the ultra-poor in Gaya.The poor need access to financial services to create diversified and reliable sources of livelihood, which help them move out of poverty. Microfinance, which provides essential financial services to the poor around the world, however, has found it difficult to reach out to the poorest, who live on less than US $1.25 per day. The Livelihood Pathways for the Poorest project, which is jointly implemented in Gaya District, Bihar, India, by the Grameen Foundation and the Livelihood School (part of BASIX group of companies), aimed to demonstrate a model that could potentially fill this gap in service provision to the ultra-poor. The project employed a holistic approach to address the needs of the ultra-poor by providing integrated financial, livelihood development and risk management services. It used action research to test the hypothesis that it could be financially viable for a microfinance institution to cater to the economic needs of the very poor along with their other target clients. The project also sought to determine that even the poorest could effectively use microfinance services (savings and loans) if they are provided in combination with additional services, such as insurance, livelihood development and mentoring, particularly if the products are structured to align with clients' livelihood patterns

Determinants of Female-headed Households’ Livelihood Diversification Strategies Choice in Ambo District, Ethiopia

The study has concluded that diverse livelihood options are available and thus,Female - Headed Households pursue diverse range of activities that draw on their labor and time. However, the participation levels vary within Female - Headed Households(FHHs). The variation is mainly in terms of the activity they diversify into and conditions under which diversification are made. Generally, FHH participate in low-return and high risk and last resort activities. The study concludes that livelihood diversification strategies choice of FHH is determined by a number of factors. Hence, it is recommended that the livelihood of FHHs needs to be recognized and policy intervention should concentrate on improving access to assets within the aim of expanding livelihood options rather than assuming households are spatial homogenous and individual engage in one type of activity only

POVERTY AND DIVERSITY OF LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS IN POST-APARTHEID RURAL SOUTH AFRICA: INSIGHTS INTO LOCAL LEVELS IN THE EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE

This paper highlights the plight of black rural areas in South Africa, in which deep poverty and weak subsistence agriculture are embedded. The apartheid policy and its numerous measures are the first causes of such a situation. Besides, the existence of a relatively well-developed non-agricultural labour market also maintains productive agricultural activities at a low level. This paper attempts to contextualize those elements in the Eastern Cape province. At province level, the paper first provides the main features of poverty and livelihood systems. Then, typological approaches are used to better understand the socio-economic diversity of local livelihood systems, beyond generic statistics. The results show that diversity is a major trait of local livelihood systems. Pensions and remittances are the pillars of livelihood systems, whereas local off-farm job opportunities remain scarce. Farming activities, although widespread, form a significant source of cash income for a small proportion of households. The factors influencing such a diversity and the evolution of types are discussed. It is confirmed that rural areas in Transkei follow some major trends that have been identified at a global level: diversification of rural livelihood at household level, de-agrarianisation and de-peasantisation at community level.Food Security and Poverty, Land Economics/Use,