Is Life Singularly Nested or Not?

Life forms have long been assumed to be arranged in a single, inviolably nested hierarchal pattern. However, evidences of typology, examples of chimeromorphs, problematica, low orthologous gene frequencies, horizontal gene transfer, iterative, convergent, parallel, and heterochronic evolution, and alternate classifications from changes in taxonomic prioritization of characters, as well as cladistic observations of unresolved multichotomies, abundant most-parsimonious cladograms, low consistency Indexes, and increased character weighting suggest that more than one hierarchal pattern might be equally and simultaneously true. Biblical bioclassification not only classifies organisms differently from modern bioclassification, but also appears to be purposely flexible -- varying according to the specific needs of the one who uses the classification. Divinely instituted hierarchies of family, government, and church are neither inviolably nested nor descriptive of all the complex, many times hierarchy-contradicting relationships which exist within the institutions. Man creates things which can be grouped into multiple, equally valid classifications, and God\u27s very nature cannot be described by any single hierarchy. It would seem that neither God\u27s nature nor His creation (reflective of His nature) is arranged in a singular nested pattern A multiple-nested and/or networked pattern for life should be seriously considered by creationists for superbaraminic classification

The Pre-Flood Floating Forest: A Study in Paleontological Pattern Recognition

The sessile status and high preservability of plants make them good taxa for studying fossil record order and discriminating among the various mechanisms creationists have advanced for explaining fossil order. Although the creation model does not make specific predictions about the order of fossil appearance for the plants, evolutionary theory does. The first appearance of higher plant taxa occur in an order strongly correlative with the order of evolutionary branching predicted from published cladograms. The higher plant taxa represent a strong stratomorphic series. The probability that this pattern could be arrived at randomly is so low as to suggest that an explanation is required in the young-age creation model. The synapomorphy sequence of plant cladograms is consistent with a character trend up the cladogram towards increased resistance to dessication (or increased terrestriality) and is highly correlative with the stratigraphic order of both first appearance and maximum diversity. It is proposed that the Flood destruction of pre-Flood floating forest biome would explain this data. In a fashion analogous to the plants of a quaking bog, it is suggested that the floating forest biome grew out over the ocean through an ecological succession of rhyzomous plants of steadily increasing size generating and thriving upon an increasingly thick mat of vegetation and soil. It is suggested that the plant succession from open water inward began with horneophytes, and continued with a sequence of rhyniophytes, zosterophyllites, and progymnosperms. This was followed in turn by a full forest biome including herbaceous lycopods and ferns on the forest floor, seed ferns in the understory, and arborescent sphenophytes and lycopods making up the canopy. It is also suggested that living in the floating forest was a succession of animals (the Paleozoic ‘land’ animals). This would have included the large Paleozoic insects as well as the Devonian aquatic tetrapods (like Ichthyostega) in pools on thinner portions of the forest floor and a wide variety of large amphibians (including the labyrinthodonts) on the thicker sections of the forest. Not only does the Flood destruction of the floating forest explain the first appearance and maximum abundance order of fossil plants and animals, it also explains the strong association of Paleozoic plants with marine sediments and how the pre-Flood world could support the plant biomass represented in the Carboniferous coals. It also incorporates the pre-Flood floating forest theory of Joachim Scheven, and the floating logmat theory of Steven A. Austin for the origin of coal. It is further suggested that the residual catastrophism of the post-Flood period prevented the restoration of the antediluvian floating forest biome and resulted in the extinction of most of the Paleozoic plants and ‘land’ animals

The Way Geologists Date!

Geologists commonly use only three dating methods. Creationists commonly claim each of these techniques is invalid. Carefully considered, each technique has difficulties, but none of them can be considered faulty enough to be Invalid. Suggestions are made to increase the validity of each of the methods, and creationists are encouraged to use them to their advantage

Baraminology: A Young-Earth Creation Biosystematic Method

Walter ReMine \u27s (1) discontinuity systematics can be used as a basis for a biological classification system either within creation or evolution theory. Such a model-neutral methodology can be more efficiently utilized within any given theory of life by supplementing it with model-dependent membership criteria. Discontinuity systematics supplemented with young-earth creation model-dependent membership criteria is here called baraminology. Four young-earth creation model-dependent membership criteria are here suggested -- one based on Scripture, another based upon molecular similarity studies, a third based on cladistically-defined frequency of homoplasy, and a fourth based on flood-generated diversity bottlenecks. This paper also attempts to relate the empirically-defined holobaramins, monobaramins, apobaramins, and polybaramins of baraminology and discontinuity systematics to Biblical, creationist, and evolutionist thought. The original, created group of individuals capable of reproduction is a theoretical construct, here called an archaebaramin. Frank Marsh\u27s term baramin is considered the created \u27kind\u27 (or \u27Biblical kind\u27), and is here redefined as the archaebaramin and all its descendants. Baramins are apobaraminic groups, and may be holobaraminic in most, if not all, cases. Microevolutionary processes, including speciation occur within the baramin. Extra- and interbaraminic evolution is considered impossible. Baraminology is an easily employed and extremely powerful biosystematic method. Baraminology is the most efficient method of classifying life available to the young-earth creation biologist. It will allow the collection of an abundance of heretofore unrecognizable data in favor of a creation model, and serve as an empirical foundation upon which to construct a creationist reclassification of life

Contributions to Creationism by George McCready Price

George McCready Price (1870-1963) was the leading young-life creationist of the first half of the twentieth century. Largely self-taught, Price shared his creationist views in more than two dozen books and more than 800 articles—mostly intended for the lay believer. Price argued that true science involves deriving absolute truths by inductive syllogism from known truths. Price believed the Creation Week was 144 consecutive hours in length, six or seven thousand years ago, and everything on the earth was created in that Creation Week. Price believed the creation was created in the state of perfection and that natural evil entered the world at the Fall of man. Price believed the only natural group of organisms, the created kind (what he called the ‘natural species’ when he was being careful), was at about the taxonomic level of genus or family, and could be identified by successful hybridization. Except in the high altitudes, Price believed the entire pre-Flood world enjoyed a sub-tropical climate and supported a biota of much greater size and beauty than the biota of the present world. Price believed the Genesis Flood was global and was caused by some sort of upheaval of the oceans—possibly the sloshing back and forth of the oceans as the earth sustained a sudden, axis-changing astronomical impact. Price believed that all Phanerozoic sediments were formed in the Flood, and organisms were buried close to their pre-Flood habitation. Price believed that the global biostratigraphic column was artificially arranged according to organismal development, reversals of that order are due to normal sedimentation (not post-depositional thrust faults), and most so-called ‘extinct’ organisms are actually identical to modern organisms. Price believed that a sudden freeze was somehow associated with the Flood (to explain frozen mammoths), and the warm pre-Flood ocean water in inland seas caused a regional ice age in the years following the Flood. Price believed created kinds diversified largely by splitting and differentiation following the Flood. Price believed the post-Flood Cro-Magnon people are the oldest humans from which we have evidence, and all other hominoids (fossil and living, ape and human) are degenerate humans. Price also believed that God created languages and races and gave them to different people groups spreading out from Babel. Finally, Price believed that human civilization has degenerated from its highest form in Eden. Price’s geological ideas formed the core of the geological arguments of Whitcomb and Morris’s The Genesis Flood, but without appropriate citation. Many of the discussions of modern creationism are similar to ideas Price shared a century or more ago. Although many of current creationist discussions are likely to be derived from Price, not only is this not obvious, but much valuable discussion has been lost. Creationists should reconstruct their intellectual history and thus enrich current discussions. A host of Price’s claims are echoed in modern creationist discussions. Many of those discussions may turn out to be derived from Price’s ideas and this intellectual heritage should be studied in detail. Price’s philosophy of science, for example, seems to be echoed in such things as the creationist tendency to present anti-evolutionary arguments rather than build models, the preference of quantitative over non-quantitative research approaches, and the adoption of positivist definitions of science. Price’s climatology seems to be echoed in such things as adherence to the canopy model, associations of warm climate with large body size, and discussions about the nature and timing of the ice age. Price’s biology seems to be echoed in such things as creationists’ use of Mayr’s biological species definition, references to ‘natural limits to variation’ and ‘living fossils’, and post-Flood diversification by segregation of genetic information. Price’s geology seems to be echoed in such things as the rejection of the biostratigraphic column and disputes about the location of the Flood/post-Flood boundary in the stratigraphic record

The Cognitum: A Perception-Dependent Concept Needed in Baraminology

The taxonomic concept of cognitum (pl., cognita) is introduced to study design among baramins and to relieve other taxonomic concepts (e.g. holobaramin, baramin, basic type) concepts from considerations that may hinder their development. The cognitum is defined as a group of organisms recognized through the human cognitive senses as belonging together and sharing an underlying, unifying gestalt. This concept recognizes the importance of human neuro-cognitive processes in classification. It also implies that, at creation, organisms were endued with characteristics that elicit a unique, divinely-created psychological response in humans and that, after the Flood, the descendant species of the surviving representatives of the baramins retained these specially created characteristics. The cognitum affords research into the relative contribution by objective biosystematic techniques and neuro-cognitive phenomena to the study of biological design and classification. It also promises to clarify current problems in singly nested hierarchies, conflicting characters (homoplasy), fuzzy boundaries of groups, and unplaced taxa. Through its use in the study of biological phenomena, criteria that have been or might be proposed for baramins can be evaluated independently

Rafting: A Post-Flood Biogeographic Dispersal Mechanism

Although biogeography has contributed important data to the debate on biological origins for centuries, global biogeographic models have had poor success at explaining biogeographic data. Heretofore, the best models (evolutionary biogeography models) have neither successfully explained the multi-taxon concurrence of trans-oceanic range disjunctions nor why areas of endemism exist where they do. Here a creationist dispersal mechanism is suggested. It is proposed that plants and animals rafted across oceans on and among masses of logs, plant debris, and vegetation mats in the immediate post-Flood world. United with post-Flood models of geology, climatology, and biology, a uniquely young-age creationist model of biogeography is generated which seems to explain not only the data explained by the best evolutionary models, but also data which such models fail to explain. Also introduced are eighteen biogeographic tests of the model

Blotting Out and Breaking Up: Miscellaneous Hebrew Studies in Geocatastrophism

The blotting out of Gen. 6:7, 7:4, and 7:23 and the bursting open of the fountains of the great deep were examined to determine what constraints these passages place on Flood models. The use of maha (translated blot out ) throughout Scripture, and the theology of the blotting out of sin argue rather strongly against maha meaning the complete obliteration of something without evidence. The bulk of evidence in both theological and non-theological occurrences of the word favors a removal of something or someone, many times with evidence remaining. This suggests that Flood models that argue for the complete obliteration of pre-Flood terrestrial organisms (even of their fossils) should be appropriately revised. baqa\u27 (translated break up in Gen. 7: 11) is best translated burst open and implies that a catastrophic bursting initiated the Flood. ma\u27yan (translated fountain ) means place of the spring . Biblical usage indicates it refers to both terrestrial and oceanic springs. t ehom (translated deep ) and t ehom rabba (translated great deep ) each may refer to both oceanic and terrestrial waters. Since all the fountains of the great deep were involved, the Flood was initiated by the bursting open of both terrestrial and oceanic springs. Flood models which argue for the bursting of either only terrestrial or only oceanic springs should be appropriately revised

A Compelling Creation: A Suggestion for a New Apologetic

From our experience with quantum mechanics, chaos theory, and the ingenuity of the carnal mind, we know that it is not possible, by logical argument alone -- either from first principles or from observations of the natural world -- to arrive at the conclusion that the God of the Bible created the world. Solely logical arguments lead a person at best to a conclusion of the mind -- not the heart. Our apologetic should involve compelling arguments which remind a person what they already know in their heart (Rom. 1 :20). A few compelling arguments from the creation are reviewed. Firstly, reinforced with the observation that the universe has low entropy as well as observations from chaos theory, the specified complexity found in observations which make up the anthropic principle provide compelling evidence that the universe -- from its basic lawlike underpinnings to the details of the earth\u27s atmosphere -- has been fashioned for man by a transcendent, omniscient, omnipotent designer Secondly, the language structure of DNA as well as the specified complexity, low entropy, and chaotic nature of biological systems argue compellingly that life was fashioned by an omniscient, omnipotent, communicating designer external to biological systems. Thirdly, thermodynamic and general relativity theories combined with observational data on galactic regression suggest that the universe had a beginning. From our experience with causality, there is compelling reason to believe that the universe began as the result of a conscious decision of a personal, immanent, transcendent, immaterial, changeless, eternal, omniscient, omnipotent being. These observations provide compelling argument not just for a god, but for the Creator God of Scripture

The Pre-Flood / Flood Boundary: As Defined in Grand Canyon and East Mojave

The singular events which occurred at the initiation of the Flood should have produced a geologic signature with at least five characteristics: 1) A mechanical-erosional discontinuity (ED) identified by regional structural analysis -- probably the most significant unconformity in any given area; 2) A time or age discontinuity (AD) identified by coarse sediments above the erosional unconformity containing lithified fragments of various sedimentary units found below the unconformity; 3) A tectonic discontinuity (TO), found at the erosional unconformity, distinguished by substantial regional tectonic disruption, especially at pre-Flood continental margins; 4) A sedimentary discontinuity (SO) consisting of a thick, fining-upward, clastic-to-chemical strata megasequence of regional to inter-regional extent defined at its base by a significant onlap unconformity; 5) A paleontological discontinuity (PO) marked by an increase in abundance of fossils and the first appearance of abundant plant, animal, and/or fungal fossils. In Grand Canyon of Arizona one of the most significant regional unconformities (ED) is found at or near the top of the Chuar Group. Associated with the unconformity is the Sixtymile Formation -- a tectonicsedimentary unit dominated by breccia with large clasts (TO) from the formations below it (AD). The Sixtymile Formation occurs at the bottom of a thick, regionally extensive series of strata called the Sauk Sequence, consisting of the fining-upward clastics, capped by carbonates (SO). Only low-abundance microfossils are known below the unconformity, whereas undisputed animal fossils occur only above the Sixtymile Formation, and there in great abundance (PO). We believe, therefore, that the Sixtymile Formation is the oldest preserved Flood deposit in Grand Canyon of Arizona. In the eastern Mojave Desert region of California, the Kingston Peak Formation is a very thick, regionally extensive clastic unit containing gigantic breccia clasts (TO) from the formations below it (AD). Associated with the formation is one of the region\u27s most prominent unconformities (ED). The Kingston Peak Formation is also the lowermost of a very thick, regionally extensive, transgreSSive, fining-upward, clastic-tocarbonate megasequence (SO) known as the Sauk Sequence. Only low-abundance microfossils are known from the Kingston Peak Formation and below, whereas common animal fossils are only found in rocks above the formation (PO). We believe, therefore, that the Kingston Peak Formation signals the beginning of the Flood in the Mojave region of California and should be correlated with the Sixtymile Formation of Grand Canyon of Arizona