Expenditure on Environmentally Sensitive Goods and Services: Household Spending in Europe

Expenditure on environmentally sensitive goods and services has been analysed for the member states of the EEC, using the EUROSTAT Family Budgets data based on surveys carried out in 1988. Some data are also available from Germany, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. The groups with low average expenditures spend a higher proportion of their budget on energy than those with high expenditures, but a lower proportion on transport, especially vehicle purchases. However, all groups spend a much higher proportion of expenditure on transport than on energy, although purchased (i.e. non-private motoring and public) transport is a small proportion of transport spending, even for low expenditure groups. Pensioners spend a relatively high proportion of their budgets on package tours, especially compared to the other 'at risk' groups

Direct and indirect energy use and carbon emissions in the production phase of buildings: An input–output analysis

There is a considerable disagreement in the literature on the magnitude of primary energy use and CO2 emissions linked to the production of buildings. In this paper we assess the Swedish building sector using top-down input–output analysis. These top-down results are then disaggregated into sectors and activities, which are compared to results from 18 previous bottom-up studies using process-LCA methodology. The analysis shows almost 90% higher specific energy use (GJ/m2) for the top-down methodology. The differences are only around 20% for the share coupled to production and processing of building materials, while for other involved sectors such as transport, construction activities, production of machines and service sectors, the input–output analysis gives much higher values. Some of these differences can be explained by truncation errors due to the definition of system boundaries in the bottom-up studies. The apparent underestimation of energy use for transport, services etc. in bottom-up studies is only of marginal importance when comparing for example materials choices, but when comparing the production phase to the use phase of buildings such errors are likely to result in an underestimation of the relative importance of the production phase since the use phase is dominated by more easily estimated direct energy use

Bygg- och fastighetssektorns miljöpåverkan

Syftet med den här studien är att identifiera vilka miljökvalitetsmål som berör bygg- och fastighetssektorn  ta fram en metod för miljöutredning för bygg- och fastighetssektorn, med utgångspunkt från samtliga miljökvalitetsmål och där det är möjligt att se varifrån i bygg- och  fastighetssektorn miljöpåverkan kommer  beskriva bygg- och fastighetssektorns miljöpåverkan i kvantitativa termer enligt den framtagna metoden. För att analysera sektorns miljöpåverkan är ett första viktigt steg att definiera sektorn och den miljöpåverkan man vill ta med i analysen. I den här studien har utgångspunkten varit ett livscykelperspektiv så att miljöpåverkan som uppstår uppströms (t.ex. från produktion av byggnadsmaterial) och nedströms (t.ex. från avfallshantering) ingår. Vidare kommer vi att i den här studien redovisa resultat både från ”bygg och fastighetssektorn exklusive uppvärmning” och ”bygg- och fastighetssektorn inklusive uppvärmning”. Vi har i detta projekt utvecklat en metod som kan användas för att bedöma bygg- och fastighetssektorns miljöpåverkan. Metoden bygger i stor utsträckning på data från Miljöräkenskaperna vid SCB som uppdateras årligen, vilket innebär att metoden kan användas igen för att följa upp utvecklingen på området. Metoden kan också användas för att identifiera vilka miljöproblem och vilka emissioner som är av stor betydelse när det gäller bygg- och fastighetssektorn, samt för att identifiera var i sektorn dessa uppkommer. Baserat på denna analys kan man sedan välja indikatorer som är lämpliga för att följa utvecklingen kontinuerligt. Metoden kan naturligtvis utvecklas på olika sätt med mer och bättre data. En väsentlig slutsats är dock att metoden är möjlig att använda redan idag. Resultaten bekräftar tidigare studier att bygg- och fastighetssektorn står för en betydande del av Sveriges totala miljöpåverkan. Resultaten här indikerar att för den yttre miljön är det energianvändning, användning av 8 Bygg-och fastighetssektorns miljöpåverkan farliga kemiska produkter, avfallsgenerering, samt emissioner av växthusgaser och ämnen som bidrar till försämrad luftkvalitet och humantoxiska effekter som är väsentliga, däribland kväveoxider och partiklar. Vad gäller innemiljö framstår buller, radon samt fukt och mögel som viktiga områden. Resultaten beror på vilka systemgränser som används för att definiera bygg- och fastighetssektorn. Resultaten visade att uppvärmningen står för en stor del av energianvändningen. Även för utsläppen av växthusgaser är uppvärmningen av betydelse men mindre än för energianvändningen eftersom både el och fjärrvärmeproduktion idag i Sverige har relativt sett begränsade utsläpp av koldioxid. Mobila källor, såsom transporter står också för en stor del av utsläppen till luft. Inköp av varor från stenvaru- och cementindustrin påverkar utsläppen av koldioxid och partiklar, medan rederier och varor från mineralutvinnings- och metallindustrin bidrar mest till kväveoxidutsläppen respektive avfallsgenereringen från sektorn. Det finns en del dataluckor i miljöräkenskaperna som påverkar möjligheterna att använda dem för en heltäckande miljömålsuppföljning. Framför allt bedöms kompletterande information när det gäller hushållning av naturresurser och användning och utsläpp av giftiga ämnen vara önskvärd. Det finns även hälsoproblem kopplade till bygg- och fastighetssektorn som inte kommer fram i denna typ av input-outputberäkningar men som är av stor relevans för sektorn. Till dessa hör exempelvis problem orsakade av radon, buller samt fukt och mögel, för vilka det därför behövs kompletterande datakällor.

Consumption-basedindicators in Swedish environmental policy

QC 20140826</p

Methods to assess global environmental impacts from Swedish consumption : Synthesis report of methods, studies performed and future development

The output of the project is a synthesis of methods to assess environmental impacts in other countries caused by consumption in Sweden. Over the last couple of years a number of studies have been performed testing methods and refining data sets for these types of studies. The following six areas of assessment are taken into account in this study: greenhouse gas emissions, other emissions to air, chemicals, water use, land use and biodiversity. The report includes short introductions to methods used in the different impact areas, references to performed studies and recent research. The data availability and available time series are mentioned as well as the methods’ strengths and weaknesses. The work is performed by literature studies, references to scientific articles, working papers and ongoing projects in Sweden and internationally. Generally, when calculating environmental impacts caused by consumption in other countries one can either use a bottom-up method or a top down method. In the first case the impacts caused during the production processes for each product that is consumed are summed (LCA based methods). In the other case a consumption view is applied, i.e. data on consumption of a whole nation is combined with environmental data for each industry branch and product categories (input-output based methods). There are also several hybrid methods, for example LCA methods that use input-output based data to fill in data gaps. Some of the methods described in this report are more suitable than others to use in further analyses, for example in designing policies. These methods are the ones which links environmental impact to the total economy in a nation. To get a useful indicator on the environmental pressures linked to consumption we recommend choosing a method which can be used in further analyzing. An input-output based model makes it possible to study what implications changes in consumption, or changes in emission intensities, can have on environmental impacts. For two of the six assessment areas there exist mature methods to assess environmental impacts in other countries caused by consumption in Sweden, namely for greenhouse gas emissions and other emissions to air. The recommended methods to use for these areas are the environmentally extended input-output model. Data and time series are published by Statistics Sweden. Even though these methods are considered mature, they are still under development and enhancements can be foreseen in a near future. To go further with these analyses, one could start looking deeper into the factors that the consumption model can provide. That means comparing results by product groups and also to focus on the improvement of environmental data that are needed to calculate country intensities, i.e. for emissions caused in the countries where the production process takes place. For emissions of chemicals we are suggesting to apply an input-output based approach, which to our knowledge, still has not been tried out for Sweden. We suggest using the Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) which contains data on 90 emissions on substances by industry in an environmentally extended input output analyses. For chemicals there is a possibility to weight the chemicals according to an existing method or to work with specific chemicals. When weighting the chemicals a ”toxic potential” is obtained, which sums up the loads from different substances emissions. Emission intensities for different trade partners must be developed to get good result on emission in other countries. On the input side, i.e. the use of chemicals, there are experiences to use input-output analyses. For the three remaining areas, land use, water use and biodiversity there are no straight forward and ready to use methods or data sets. Instead we suggest initiating studies within the areas and point out possible ways to go forward. The assessment of these areas probably requires the dimension of the state in the environment, as the linkage between environmental impact and pressure is not always obvious. Regarding land use one can add the land use and land cover statistics to the inputoutput model. A prerequisite is to divide these data on industry branches. This has not been performed to a full scale and need to be initiated. Probably some reference to the state in the environment needs to be done, by using for example the HANPP index (human appropriation of net primary production in earth’s terrestrial ecosystem), in order to get interpretable results. The HANPP index gives a measure on how much biocapacity that is removed from the available biocapacity and is based on forestry and agriculture statistics, and global data is available. To get relevant land use data in the countries where the products that we import are produced the availability on international data must first be mapped. This method has yet to be tested before we can say how the results can be interpreted. A product view can be pragmatic in this area as a starting point. Critical products could possibly be identified, products known to be linked to negative land use effects, if experts can set up relevant criteria. The Swedish trade with these products can be analyzed, pointing out how Swedish consumption contributes to changes in land use in different countries. A possible way forward would be to utilize land use data for some major categories such as agriculture or forestry in the countries from which Sweden imports goods and gradually develop a database with more environmentally relevant information on the type of land use. Regarding water use one can add water use statistics to the environmentally extended input-output model. The availability on international data must first be mapped in order get relevant water use data in the countries where the products that we import are produced. This could be combined with some kind of index which indicates the state in the environment to be useful, as in the case of land use. Such an index is for example the water scarcity index which shows the global status in water basins. One could also apply a product perspective. It is known that agricultural products are those most related to water problems globally. These products can be identified in the Swedish trade, data can be analyzed and this together with the scarcity index could say something about Swedish consumption’s contribution to water related problems. These suggested methods have yet to be tested before we can say how the results can be interpreted. Biodiversity is a complex area and is also connected to the other areas to a large extent. There is no biodiversity index ready to use and probably not foreseen in a near future. However, if the five areas above are added to an environmentally extended input-output model they probably together give a relatively good measure on biodiversity related pressures. As a starting point, however, a product view can be useful to apply. In this case critical products must be listed, if this can be done by experts, so that the study of the trade with these can be performed. The outtake of wood and fish should at least be included in such a study. As the six areas of assessment differ in method and data availability there are several options for the scope of further studies and research. Firstly one can make the most mature methods even better, to make more accurate calculations and hence focus on greenhouse gas emissions and other emissions to air. Secondly, one can initiate new studies to increase the number of extensions in the input-output based calculations. Emissions of chemicals, is an extension that seem to be possible to add to the environmentally extended input-output model under some limitations. One can also focus on those diverse areas where no exact methods are available and initiate studies or research so that these can be linked to consumption in Sweden in a near future. Land use and water use can probably also be added to the environmentally extended input-output model, whereas biodiversity seem to be more distant.

Methods to assess global environmental impacts from Swedish consumption : Synthesis report of methods, studies performed and future development

The output of the project is a synthesis of methods to assess environmental impacts in other countries caused by consumption in Sweden. Over the last couple of years a number of studies have been performed testing methods and refining data sets for these types of studies. The following six areas of assessment are taken into account in this study: greenhouse gas emissions, other emissions to air, chemicals, water use, land use and biodiversity. The report includes short introductions to methods used in the different impact areas, references to performed studies and recent research. The data availability and available time series are mentioned as well as the methods’ strengths and weaknesses. The work is performed by literature studies, references to scientific articles, working papers and ongoing projects in Sweden and internationally. Generally, when calculating environmental impacts caused by consumption in other countries one can either use a bottom-up method or a top down method. In the first case the impacts caused during the production processes for each product that is consumed are summed (LCA based methods). In the other case a consumption view is applied, i.e. data on consumption of a whole nation is combined with environmental data for each industry branch and product categories (input-output based methods). There are also several hybrid methods, for example LCA methods that use input-output based data to fill in data gaps. Some of the methods described in this report are more suitable than others to use in further analyses, for example in designing policies. These methods are the ones which links environmental impact to the total economy in a nation. To get a useful indicator on the environmental pressures linked to consumption we recommend choosing a method which can be used in further analyzing. An input-output based model makes it possible to study what implications changes in consumption, or changes in emission intensities, can have on environmental impacts. For two of the six assessment areas there exist mature methods to assess environmental impacts in other countries caused by consumption in Sweden, namely for greenhouse gas emissions and other emissions to air. The recommended methods to use for these areas are the environmentally extended input-output model. Data and time series are published by Statistics Sweden. Even though these methods are considered mature, they are still under development and enhancements can be foreseen in a near future. To go further with these analyses, one could start looking deeper into the factors that the consumption model can provide. That means comparing results by product groups and also to focus on the improvement of environmental data that are needed to calculate country intensities, i.e. for emissions caused in the countries where the production process takes place. For emissions of chemicals we are suggesting to apply an input-output based approach, which to our knowledge, still has not been tried out for Sweden. We suggest using the Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) which contains data on 90 emissions on substances by industry in an environmentally extended input output analyses. For chemicals there is a possibility to weight the chemicals according to an existing method or to work with specific chemicals. When weighting the chemicals a ”toxic potential” is obtained, which sums up the loads from different substances emissions. Emission intensities for different trade partners must be developed to get good result on emission in other countries. On the input side, i.e. the use of chemicals, there are experiences to use input-output analyses. For the three remaining areas, land use, water use and biodiversity there are no straight forward and ready to use methods or data sets. Instead we suggest initiating studies within the areas and point out possible ways to go forward. The assessment of these areas probably requires the dimension of the state in the environment, as the linkage between environmental impact and pressure is not always obvious. Regarding land use one can add the land use and land cover statistics to the inputoutput model. A prerequisite is to divide these data on industry branches. This has not been performed to a full scale and need to be initiated. Probably some reference to the state in the environment needs to be done, by using for example the HANPP index (human appropriation of net primary production in earth’s terrestrial ecosystem), in order to get interpretable results. The HANPP index gives a measure on how much biocapacity that is removed from the available biocapacity and is based on forestry and agriculture statistics, and global data is available. To get relevant land use data in the countries where the products that we import are produced the availability on international data must first be mapped. This method has yet to be tested before we can say how the results can be interpreted. A product view can be pragmatic in this area as a starting point. Critical products could possibly be identified, products known to be linked to negative land use effects, if experts can set up relevant criteria. The Swedish trade with these products can be analyzed, pointing out how Swedish consumption contributes to changes in land use in different countries. A possible way forward would be to utilize land use data for some major categories such as agriculture or forestry in the countries from which Sweden imports goods and gradually develop a database with more environmentally relevant information on the type of land use. Regarding water use one can add water use statistics to the environmentally extended input-output model. The availability on international data must first be mapped in order get relevant water use data in the countries where the products that we import are produced. This could be combined with some kind of index which indicates the state in the environment to be useful, as in the case of land use. Such an index is for example the water scarcity index which shows the global status in water basins. One could also apply a product perspective. It is known that agricultural products are those most related to water problems globally. These products can be identified in the Swedish trade, data can be analyzed and this together with the scarcity index could say something about Swedish consumption’s contribution to water related problems. These suggested methods have yet to be tested before we can say how the results can be interpreted. Biodiversity is a complex area and is also connected to the other areas to a large extent. There is no biodiversity index ready to use and probably not foreseen in a near future. However, if the five areas above are added to an environmentally extended input-output model they probably together give a relatively good measure on biodiversity related pressures. As a starting point, however, a product view can be useful to apply. In this case critical products must be listed, if this can be done by experts, so that the study of the trade with these can be performed. The outtake of wood and fish should at least be included in such a study. As the six areas of assessment differ in method and data availability there are several options for the scope of further studies and research. Firstly one can make the most mature methods even better, to make more accurate calculations and hence focus on greenhouse gas emissions and other emissions to air. Secondly, one can initiate new studies to increase the number of extensions in the input-output based calculations. Emissions of chemicals, is an extension that seem to be possible to add to the environmentally extended input-output model under some limitations. One can also focus on those diverse areas where no exact methods are available and initiate studies or research so that these can be linked to consumption in Sweden in a near future. Land use and water use can probably also be added to the environmentally extended input-output model, whereas biodiversity seem to be more distant.