Neurotrophe Mechanismen während der Entwicklung des retino-tektalen Systems der Taube (Columba livia)

Die Arbeit untersucht die möglichen Funktionen der beiden Neurotrophine BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) und NT-3 (neurotrophin-3) während der Entwicklung des Sehsystems der Taube Columba livia. Mittels elektromikroskopischer Untersuchungen konnten die genauen Signalwege zwischen der Netzhaut und den nachfolgenden Hirnstrukturen beschrieben werden, wobei das Neurotrophin NT-3 einen Großteil der Entwicklungsprozesse der Verbindungen zwischen dem Auge und dem Gehirn reguliert, und BDNF darüber hinaus auch in den erwachsenen Tieren eine ständige Feinanpassung des Systems ermöglicht

Caffeine and NAD+NAD^{+} improve motor neural integrity of dissociated wobbler cells in vitro

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a common degenerative disease of the central nervous system concerning a progressive loss of upper and lower motor neurons. While 5%–10% of patients are diagnosed with the inherited form of the disease, the vast majority of patients suffer from the less characterized sporadic form of ALS (sALS). As the wobbler mouse and the ALS show striking similarities in view of phenotypical attributes, the mouse is rated as an animal model for the disease. Recent investigations show the importance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ($NAD^{+}$) and its producing enzyme nicotinic acid mononucleotide transferase 2 (Nmnat2) for neurodegeneration as well as for the preservation of health of the neuronal cells. Furthermore, it is newly determined that these molecules show significant downregulations in the spinal cord of wobbler mice in the stable phase of disease development. Here, we were able to prove a positive benefit on affected motor neurons from an additional $NAD^{+}$ supply as well as an increase in the Nmnat2 level through caffeine treatment in cells in vitro. In addition, first assumptions about the importance of endogenous and exogenous factors that have an influence on the wellbeing of motor nerve cells in the model of ALS can be considered

Little helpers or mean rogue—role of microglia in animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, causing degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). ALS patients suffer from hyperreflexia, spasticity, paralysis and muscle atrophy and typically die due to respiratory failure 1–5 years after disease onset. In addition to the degeneration of motor neurons on the cellular level, ALS has been associated with neuroinflammation, such as microgliosis. Microglial activation in ALS can either be protective or degenerative to the neurons. Among others, mutations in superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9Orf72), transactive response DNA binding protein (TDP) 43 and vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 54 (VPS54) genes have been associated with ALS. Here, we describe the dual role and functionality of microglia in four different in vivo ALS models and search for the lowest common denominator with respect to the role of microglia in the highly heterogeneous disease of ALS

miR-129-5p and miR-130a-3p regulate VEGFR-2 expression in sensory and motor neurons during development

The wide-ranging influence of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) within the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), for example through effects on axonal growth or neuronal cell survival, is mainly mediated by VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR-2). However, the regulation of VEGFR-2 expression during development is not yet well understood. As microRNAs are considered to be key players during neuronal maturation and regenerative processes, we identified the two microRNAs (miRNAs)—miR-129-5p and miR-130a-3p—that may have an impact on VEGFR-2 expression in young and mature sensory and lower motor neurons. The expression level of VEGFR-2 was analyzed by using in situ hybridization, RT-qPCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry in developing rats. microRNAs were validated within the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia. To unveil the molecular impact of our candidate microRNAs, dissociated cell cultures of sensory and lower motor neurons were transfected with mimics and inhibitors. We depicted age-dependent VEGFR-2 expression in sensory and lower motor neurons. In detail, in lower motor neurons, VEGFR-2 expression was significantly reduced during maturation, in conjunction with an increased level of miR-129-5p. In sensory dorsal root ganglia, VEGFR-2 expression increased during maturation and was accompanied by an overexpression of miR-130a-3p. In a second step, the functional significance of these microRNAs with respect to VEGFR-2 expression was proven. Whereas miR-129-5p seems to decrease VEGFR-2 expression in a direct manner in the CNS, miR-130a-3p might indirectly control VEGFR-2 expression in the PNS. A detailed understanding of genetic VEGFR-2 expression control might promote new strategies for the treatment of severe neurological diseases like ischemia or peripheral nerve injury

Vascular endothelial growth factor, irradiation, and axitinib have diverse effects on motility and proliferation of glioblastoma multiforme cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor. It is highly aggressive with an unfavorable prognosis for the patients despite therapies including surgery, irradiation, and chemotherapy. One important characteristic of highly vascularized GBM is the strong expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF has become a new target in the treatment of GBM, and targeted therapies such as the VEGF-receptor blocker axitinib are in clinical trials. Most studies focus on VEGF-induced angiogenesis, but only very few investigations analyze autocrine or paracrine effects of VEGF on the tumor cells. In this study, we examined the impact of VEGF, irradiation, and axitinib on cell proliferation and cell motility in human GBM cell lines U-251 and U-373. VEGF receptor 2 was shown to be expressed within both cell lines by using PCR and immunochemistry. Moreover, we performed 24-h videography to analyze motility, and a viability assay for cell proliferation. We observed increasing effects of VEGF and irradiation on cell motility in both cell lines, as well as strong inhibiting effects on cellular motility by VEGF-receptor blockade using axitinib. Moreover, axitinib diminished irradiation induced accelerating effects. While VEGF stimulation or irradiation did not affect cell proliferation, axitinib significantly decreased cell proliferation in both cell lines. Therefore, the impairment of VEGF signaling might have a crucial role in the treatment of GBM

Vascular endothelial growth factor, irradiation, and axitinib have diverse effects on motility and proliferation of glioblastoma multiforme cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor. It is highly aggressive with an unfavorable prognosis for the patients despite therapies including surgery, irradiation, and chemotherapy. One important characteristic of highly vascu-larized GBM is the strong expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF has become a new target in the treatment of GBM, and targeted therapies such as the VEGF-receptor blocker axitinib are in clinical trials. Most studies focus on VEGF-induced angiogenesis, but only very few investigations analyze autocrine or paracrine effects of VEGF on the tumor cells. In this study, we examined the impact of VEGF, irradiation, and axitinib on cell proliferation and cell motility in human GBM cell lines U-251 and U-373. VEGF receptor 2 was shown to be expressed within both cell lines by using PCR and immunochemistry. Moreover, we performed 24-h videography to analyze motility, and a viability assay for cell proliferation. We observed increasing effects of VEGF and irradiation on cell motility in both cell lines, as well as strong inhibiting effects on cellular motility by VEGF-receptor blockade using axitinib. Moreover, axitinib diminished irradiation induced accelerating effects. While VEGF stimulation or irradiation did not affect cell proliferation, axitinib significantly decreased cell proliferation in both cell lines. Therefore, the impairment of VEGF signaling might have a crucial role in the treatment of GBM

CXCR4/SDF1 signalling promotes sensory neuron clustering in vitro\textit {in vitro}

During the development of the peripheral nervous system, a subgroup of neural crest cells migrate away from the neural tube and coalesce into clusters of sensory neurons (ganglia). Mechanisms involved in the formation of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) from neural crest cells are currently unclear. Mice carrying mutations in $\textit {Cxcr4}$, which is known to control neural crest migration, exhibit malformed DRG. In order to investigate this phenomenon, we modelled sensory neuron differentiation $\textit {in vitro}$ by directing the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells into sensory neurons under SDF1 (agonist), AMD3100 (antagonist) or control conditions. There we could show a marked effect on the clustering activity of the neurons $\textit {in vitro}$, suggesting that $\textit {CXCR4}$ signalling is involved in facilitating DRG condensation

Deregulated miR-29b-3p\textit {miR-29b-3p} correlates with tissue-specific activation of intrinsic apoptosis in an animal model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is one of the most common incurable motor neuron disorders in adults. The majority of all ALS cases occur sporadically (sALS). Symptoms of ALS are caused by a progressive degeneration of motor neurons located in the motor cortex and spinal cord. The question arises why motor neurons selectively degenerate in ALS, while other cells and systems appear to be spared the disease. Members of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway are frequent targets of altered microRNA expression. Therefore, microRNAs and their effects on cell survival are subject of controversial debates. In this study, we investigated the expression of numerous members of the intrinsic apoptotic cascade by qPCR, western blot, and immunostaining in two different regions of the CNS of wobbler mice. Further we addressed the expression of $\textit {miR-29b-3p}$ targeting BMF, Bax, and, Bak, members of the apoptotic pathway. We show a tissue-specific differential expression of BMF, Bax, and cleaved-Caspase 3 in wobbler mice. An opposing regulation of $\textit {miR-29b-3p}$ expression in the cerebellum and cervical spinal cord of wobbler mice suggests different mechanisms regulating the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Based on our findings, it could be speculated that $\textit {miR-29b-3p}$ might regulate antiapoptotic survival mechanisms in CNS areas that are not affected by neurodegeneration in the wobbler mouse ALS model

Neuroprotective effects of VEGF in the enteric nervous system

Although the enteric nervous system (ENS) functions largely autonomously as part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), it is connected to the central nervous system (CNS) via the gut–brain axis. In many neurodegenerative diseases, pathological changes occur in addition to gastrointestinal symptoms, such as alpha-synuclein aggregates in Parkinson’s disease, which are found early in the ENS. In both the CNS and PNS, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mediates neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects. Since the ENS with its close connection to the microbiome and the immune system is discussed as the origin of neurodegenerative diseases, it is necessary to investigate the possibly positive effects of VEGF on enteric neurons. Using laser microdissection and subsequent quantitative RT-PCR as well as immunohistochemistry, for the first time we were able to detect and localize VEGF receptor expression in rat myenteric neurons of different ages. Furthermore, we demonstrate direct neuroprotective effects of VEGF in the ENS in cell cultures. Thus, our results suggest a promising approach regarding neuroprotection, as the use of VEGF (may) prevent neuronal damage in the ENS

HSP27 induced glaucomatous damage in mice of young and advanced age

$\bf Introduction:$ Age-related diseases such as glaucoma, a leading cause of blindness, are having an upward trend due to an aging society. In glaucoma, some patients display altered antibody profiles and increased antibody titers, for example against heat shock protein 27 ($\it HSP27$). An intravitreal injection of $\it HSP27$ leads to glaucoma-like damage in rats. We now aimed to investigate if aged mice are more prone to this damage than younger ones. $\bf Methods:$ We intravitreally injected $\it HSP27$ into young (1–2 months) and aged (7–8 months) mice to compare glaucomatous damage. Respective age-matched controls received PBS. Not injected eyes served as naive controls. $\bf Results:$ Optical coherence tomography 4 weeks after injection showed no changes in retinal thickness in all groups at both ages. Cell counts and RT-qPCR revealed a significant reduction in RGC numbers in $\it HSP27$ mice at both ages. Comparing aged and young $\it HSP27$ mice, no differences in $\it Rbpms$ and $\it Pou4f1$ (RGCs) expression was detected, while the $\it Tubb3$ expression (neuronal cells) was significantly upregulated in aged $\it HSP27$ animals. Neither microglia/macrophages nor (resident) microglia counts revealed significant differences in $\it HSP27$ mice at both ages. Nevertheless, increased relative $\it Iba1$ and $\it Tmem119$ expression was detected in young and aged $\it HSP27$ mice. Aged $\it HSP27$ mice displayed a significantly lower $\it Iba1$ expression than young ones, whereas $\it Cd68$ levels were upregulated. A larger $\it GFAP+$ area and an upregulation of $\it GFAP$ expression in $\it HSP27$ animals of both ages indicated a macrogliosis. Also, elevated $\it Il1b$ and $\it Nos2$ expression levels were observed in young and aged $\it HSP27$ mice. However, only $\it Il1b$ levels were upregulated when comparing 7–8 months to 1–2 months old animals. A larger $\it HSP25+$ area was seen in aged $\it HSP27$ animals, while $\it Hspb2$ expression levels were downregulated in both $\it HSP27$ groups. The aged $\it HSP27$ group displayed an upregulated $\it Hspb2$ expression compared to young mice. Furthermore, a higher optic nerve degeneration score was noted in young and aged $\it HSP27$ groups. $\bf Discussion:$ These findings indicate that an intravitreal injection of $\it HSP27$ led to $\it RGC$ loss accompanied by inflammation. Age-dependent effects (7–8 months vs. 1–2 months) were not very prominent. The results suggest a potential role of extracellular $\it HSP27$ in the development of glaucoma