Entrepreneurial motivations, aspirations and formalisation decisions amongst informal women entrepreneurs in Nepal

It is assumed that entrepreneurs are motivated to engage in the informal economy out of necessity for survival rather than opportunity; therefore, lacking growth aspirations and avoiding formalisation. However, there is a lack empirical research exploring entrepreneurial motivations and aspirations in developing countries. This research aims to fill this gap by exploring informal women entrepreneurs’ motivations, life aspirations and formalisation decisions in the case study of Nepal. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 informal women entrepreneurs in Nepal’s second largest city, Biratnagar. Women entrepreneurs’ motivations to engage in the entrepreneurial activities were complex, dynamic and intertwined with wider social norms. These complex and dynamic motivations influenced their life aspirations in terms of business growth and personal development. Entrepreneurs, who aspired to grow perceived formalisation as next step towards business sustainability. The findings contribute to the debates on the formalisation of the informal economy and calls to recognise the variabilities among informal women entrepreneurs’ motivations and aspirations. Given the role of informal activities and women entrepreneurs aspirations formalisation could have significant implications on their business sustainability

Formalising women entrepreneurs in the informal economy of Kathmandu, Nepal: pathway towards empowerment?

Women’s economic empowerment through entrepreneurship is increasingly being recognised as significant to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, women entrepreneurship in developing countries is characterised by an overrepresentation in the informal economy and exposure to high levels of gender disparities. The aim of this paper is to explore whether formalisation of women’s entrepreneurial activities in the informal economy supports SDGs through ensuring empowerment and equality. The research adopt a qualitative research design to explore the empowerment outcomes of the formalisation of women’s entrepreneurial activities in the informal economy of Kathmandu, Nepal. Data were collected through interviews with 30 women entrepreneurs engaged in a mix of formal and informal entrepreneurial activities. By using Mayoux’s (1998) framework of empowerment at the individual, household and community level, the findings show the variation in empowerment outcomes as a result of women’s diverse motivations for engaging in entrepreneurship. Whilst informal entrepreneurial activities improve women’s confidence and life aspirations, they have limited potential in lifting women out of poverty and enable them to significantly challenge gender relations in the society. Formalisation does further empower women at the household and community level but this is primarily the case of younger and more educated women. The research contributes to the debates on entrepreneurship as ‘emancipation’ and more specifically, on whether formalisation contributes to the SDGs by furthering gender equality and empowerment. Formalisation policies need to acknowledge the heterogeneity of women entrepreneurs

Negotiating business and family demands within a patriarchal society – the case of women entrepreneurs in the Nepalese context

The aim of this paper is to advance our understanding of how women negotiate their business and family demands in a developing country context. The highest cited motivation for women’s pursuit of entrepreneurship has been their need to attend to these demands. Yet, empirically we know little about the negotiating actions taken by, and the business satisfaction of women in the context of both livelihood challenges and patriarchal contexts, despite several scholarly calls for contextualised accounts of women’s entrepreneurship. We explore these issues by employing a qualitative study of 90 women engaged in primarily informal entrepreneurial activities in three Nepalese regions. Our findings highlight three main and interrelated themes – negotiating consent, family resource access and gaining status. These themes allow us to contextualise the process of negotiating business and family demands by highlighting how women legitimise their business activities, respond to family/societal expectations and mobilise support for, and find satisfaction in their business. Overall, our study contributes towards accounts of business-family interface that incorporate the everyday practices of entrepreneurial activities amongst those less privileged in terms of resource access in particular socio-cultural contexts

Exploring synergies and trade-offs among the sustainable development goals: collective action and adaptive capacity in marginal mountainous areas of India

Global environmental change (GEC) threatens to undermine the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Smallholders in marginal mountainous areas (MMA) are particularly vulnerable due to precarious livelihoods in challenging environments. Acting collectively can enable and constrain the ability of smallholders to adapt to GEC. The objectives of this paper are: (i) identify collective actions in four MMA of the central Indian Himalaya Region, each with differing institutional contexts; (ii) assess the adaptive capacity of each village by measuring livelihood capital assets, diversity, and sustainable land management practices. Engaging with adaptive capacity and collective action literatures, we identify three broad approaches to adaptive capacity relating to the SDGs: natural hazard mitigation (SDG 13), social vulnerability (SDG 1, 2 and 5), and social–ecological resilience (SDG 15). We then develop a conceptual framework to understand the institutional context and identify SDG synergies and trade-offs. Adopting a mixed method approach, we analyse the relationships between collective action and the adaptive capacity of each village, the sites where apparent trade-offs and synergies among SDGs occur. Results illustrate each village has unique socio-environmental characteristics, implying distinct development challenges, vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities exist. Subsequently, specific SDG synergies and trade-offs occur even within MMA, and it is therefore crucial that institutions facilitate locally appropriate collective actions in order to achieve the SDGs. We suggest that co-production in the identification, prioritisation and potential solutions to the distinct challenges facing MMA can increase understandings of the specific dynamics and feedbacks necessary to achieve the SDGs in the context of GEC

Do protected areas and conservation incentives contribute to sustainable livelihoods? A case study of Bardia National Park, Nepal

Effective biodiversity protection and improved human welfare as ‘win–win’ situations have been the foundation for protected areas and conservation incentives. However, conserving land in this way can become a development issue that restricts agricultural expansion and resource exploitation, with potentially substantial costs to people living in conditions of high social impoverishment and high critical natural capital. This paper investigates whether Nepal's Bardia National Park and conservation incentives have contributed to the sustainable livelihoods of households. Data on household livelihoods and conservation benefits were collected through a questionnaire survey of 358 households and community workshops in three villages. Different impacts on household livelihoods were observed between the villages. It was found that these impacts were dependent on household characteristics, access to prior capital, and the social position of the household within society. Households lacking resources, being poor and belonging to lower castes were least included and also benefited less from development projects. As finance in the form of development projects from organisations continues to flow to the communities, it is important that detailed livelihood planning focussing on alternative regenerative livelihoods and micro-enterprises in the informal sector is included to target those households that are highly dependent on park resources. Livelihood planning must also include a clear linkage between livelihood enhancing activities and the conservation programme so that communities are aware that the benefits they receive are due to the protected area. Appreciation of benefits and their positive impact on livelihoods is important for the sustainability of incentive-based programmes

Effectiveness of means used for crop protection against wildlife: Implications for conservation and biodiversity management at Bardia National Park

Conflicts due to damage caused by wildlife pose serious threats to conservation. In addition, wildlife damage incurs severe economic loss to communities living in the close vicinity of the park, affecting the livelihoods and well-being of locals. While different studies have emphasised identification and quantification of crop damage problems, studies highlighting the means used for crop protection and their effectiveness are limited. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of means used by communities to protect their crops against wildlife. 117 households were visited at two Buffer Zone villages of Bardia National Park, Nepal. Findings suggested that crop depredation by wildlife was a function of several factors, such as the distance of the farmland from the park, the size of the crop raiding animals and the frequency of attacks on the farmland, and the type of crops. Ten different means were identified by communities which were used regularly to prevent crop damage. Households combined both traditional and modern means to guard their crop against the wild animals. Means differed according to the animals as well as crops being protected. Among all these means, Machan (i.e. watch towers) combined with other means such as throwing flaming sticks and group shouting were the most effective and safest modes of crop guarding for all kinds of animals and crops. Trench and Bio-fencing were effective mostly for deer species. However, crop guarding was an intensive process and no means were able to completely prevent crop damage. Problem animals differed according to the villages and crops being damaged, which suggests that employment of single means would be ineffective. Site-specific management strategies and economic as well as technical support from funding organisations would be most useful to minimise crop loss. In addition information exchange and learning between farmers and the park management about different mitigating means could support and prepare farmers for improvement in the means

Community-based conservation: an institutional approach to assessing biodiversity conservation efforts at Bardia National Park in Nepal

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“Feeding bellies not bins” - closing the loop in the food systems to reduce food waste in UK

Food waste is a prevalent issue, posing a significant societal, economic, nutritional and environmental challenge. Increasing demand for food, growing population and high rates of food waste across the food system calls for innovative sustainable solutions. Researchers have emphasised on the role of circular economy in reducing food waste and contributing to sustainable food systems. However, there is a lack of evidence on the role of circular economy in reducing food waste. The aim of this research is to fill this gap and explore how the circular economy approach can minimise the problem of food waste in the case study of the UK. This research focused on the end of the food supply chain, retail and final consumption. It explored six case studies including two social initiatives and four businesses. The diverse cases provided a better understanding of wider issues in implementing a circular economy to reduce food waste as well as the role of different actors in reducing food waste. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews (founders, employee, and experts), and secondary materials (company reports and website materials). Thematic analysis, using coding and themes identification, guided the analysis of the interviews and secondary materials. Among the six case studies, four cases have adopted circular economy practices, such as circular supplies and resource recovery. Facilitating factors for adopting the circular economy included close partnerships and collaborations between all actors. Two of the main barriers to implementing the circular economy approach identified from the cases were regulations and consumer’s attitudes. Findings showed that the circular economy could play an important role in minimising food waste. This requires collaboration, change and transformation from multiple stakeholders, such as government revising their policies, social initiatives educating and involving communities, SMEs and start-ups playing a key role in adopting CE practices in their business, and retailers adopting strategies to reducing edible food waste

Sustainable entrepreneurship for marine biodiversity conservation: making sense of the unfamiliar environment for the wider good

The marine environment refers to the earth’s oceans, seas, estuaries and other major bodies. It is the most dynamic, varied and vital ecosystem on the planet, covering 72% of the earth’s surface, providing 90% of the habitable space on earth for over 300,000 species, and contributing $21 Trillion to human wealth, which is 60% of the total economic value of the earth biosphere. However, the degradation of the marine environment is reaching critical levels, requiring an urgent action to minimise the myriad of challenges it faces. Inadequate understanding and knowledge gaps of the marine environment and the overall functioning of ecosystems, lack of connectedness with people, and perception that it is an inexhaustible supply of resources and an unlimited capacity to absorb waste has contributed to the high level of degradation. The current methods of protection based on conservation such as, the formation of protected areas and extraction limits have been found to be inadequate not only in protecting the marine environment and but also the communities that depend on it. There is a growing recognition of entrepreneurship as a solution to environmental degradation and social inequality as has been seen in the context of social and sustainable entrepreneurship. There are many successful examples where sustainable entrepreneurs have used the market-based mechanism to meet the goal of sustainable development. But, how do the entrepreneurs get to know unfamiliar natural and complex ecosystems? How do they get embed themselves in such contexts for wider good? Focusing on the marine biodiversity conservation, this research aims to explore the mechanism sustainable entrepreneurs use to make sense of the unfamiliar environment and the way they engage stakeholders. Semi-structured interviews were employed to collect data from six sustainable ventures operating in the marine environment. Dissatisfaction with the current industry and frustration on the lack of concern and slow government response were key drivers for engaging in entrepreneurial activities and using a market-based mechanism to conserve the environment. While prior experience, skills and knowledge of the marine environment increased alertness and awareness of the entrepreneurs, the ‘real-life’ visceral experiences triggered the venture foundation decision. Driven to pursue the triple-bottom-line values, the entrepreneurs faced various challenges where they constantly had to experiment what they knew, consider inherent trade-off for growth, and educate the consumers to make a strong link with the marine environment. The findings contribute to the literature on sustainable entrepreneurship and highlights challenges associated with pursuing triple-bottom line values. While there is evidence that sustainable entrepreneurship can contribute to the conservation of the marine environment, the unique conditions and expert knowledge of the environment, the disconnection between customers and the natural environment, and the requirement of specific skills set limits the frequency of sustainable venture