From actually toxic to highly specific – novel drugs against poxviruses

The potential use of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, as a bioweapon and the endemic presence of monkeypox virus in Africa demonstrate the need for better therapies for orthopoxvirus infections. Chemotherapeutic approaches to control viral infections have been less successful than those targeting bacterial infections. While bacteria commonly reproduce themselves outside of cells and have metabolic functions against which antibiotics can be directed, viruses replicate in the host cells using the cells' metabolic pathways. This makes it very difficult to selectively target the virus without damaging the host. Therefore, the development of antiviral drugs against poxviruses has initially focused on unique properties of the viral replication cycle or of viral proteins that can be selectively targeted. However, recent advances in molecular biology have provided insights into host factors that represent novel drug targets. The latest anti-poxvirus drugs are kinase inhibitors, which were originally developed to treat cancer progression but in addition block egress of poxviruses from infected cells. This review will summarize the current understanding of anti-poxvirus drugs and will give an overview of the development of the latest second generation poxvirus drugs

Murine leukemia virus (MLV) replication monitored with fluorescent proteins

Background: Cancer gene therapy will benefit from vectors that are able to replicate in tumor tissue and cause a bystander effect. Replication-competent murine leukemia virus (MLV) has been described to have potential as cancer therapeutics, however, MLV infection does not cause a cytopathic effect in the infected cell and viral replication can only be studied by immunostaining or measurement of reverse transcriptase activity. Results: We inserted the coding sequences for green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the proline-rich region (PRR) of the ecotropic envelope protein (Env) and were able to fluorescently label MLV. This allowed us to directly monitor viral replication and attachment to target cells by flow cytometry. We used this method to study viral replication of recombinant MLVs and split viral genomes, which were generated by replacement of the MLV env gene with the red fluorescent protein (RFP) and separately cloning GFP-Env into a retroviral vector. Co-transfection of both plasmids into target cells resulted in the generation of semi-replicative vectors, and the two color labeling allowed to determine the distribution of the individual genomes in the target cells and was indicative for the occurrence of recombination events. Conclusions: Fluorescently labeled MLVs are excellent tools for the study of factors that influence viral replication and can be used to optimize MLV-based replication-competent viruses or vectors for gene therapy

Charakterisierung und Optimierung von replikationskompetenten murinen Leukämieviren (MLV) als Gentransfervehikel

Replizierende Murine Leukämieviren (MLV) können wertvolle Werkzeuge für die humane Krebsgentherapie werden, da sie das Transgen innerhalb des gewünschten Gewebes verteilen, ihr Genom stabil integrieren und einen natürlichen Tumortropismus aufweisen. In vorliegender Arbeit wurde ein System zur visuellen Analyse der MLV‐Replikation sowie der Virusbindung an Zielzellen mittels Einfügung fluoreszierender Proteine etabliert und als Werkzeug für dasDesign und die Optimierung dieser Viren als Gentherapievektoren benutzt. Zuerst wurde die Kodierungskapazität dieser Retroviren durch Aufteilen der viralen Gene auf zwei semireplikative Vektoren vergößert. Die Kopplung der Genome mit fluoreszierenden Proteinen ermöglichte ebenfalls in diesem Zusammenhang die Beobachtung der Repliktion aber auch die einfache Aufdeckung von Rekombinationsereignissen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten den Bedarf weiterer Optimierungen, stellten allerdings einen Vorreiter auf diesem Forschungsgebiet dar und zeigten das Potential dieses Systems auf (Sliva et al., 2004a). Zusätzlich zum natürlichen Tumortropismus sollte die Sicherheit von replizierenden Retroviren für die Tumortherapie erhöht werdn. Gezielte Veränderungen des ecotropen Hüllproteins zu EGFR‐exprimierenden Zellen mittels gerichteter Evolution sowie der Versuch, den Wirtstropismus des Env mit der Insertion des Liganden SDF‐1α auf humane CXCR4‐exprimierende Zellen auszuweiten, sind jedoch gescheitert. Diese Daten müssen sich in die Reihe der erfolglos gebliebenen Versuche, den Wirtstropismus des ecotropen Env auf humane Zellen auszuweiten, einreihen (Sliva et al., 2004b). Abschließend wurde shRNA als therapeutisches Effektormolekül erfolgreich mittels replikationskompetenter MLV in Zielzellen überragen, was zur deutlichen Herabsetzung des Proteinlevels des Zielproteins der siRNA führte (Sliva et al., 2006). Diese modifizierten Viren sind ein gutes Werkzeug zur einfachen in vitro Untersuchung von Genfunktionen, und könnten auch eine Erleichterung für die Untersuchung von Genfunktionen innerhalb von proliferierendem Tumorgewebe darstelln. Des Weiteren präsentieren die Ergebnisse und Beobachtungen dieser Arbeit einen großen Schritt in Richtung Anwendung dieser Virn für die humane Gentherapie. Denn gekoppelt mit z.B. einer tumorspezifischen Expression der shRNA‐Expressionskassette und der intelligenten Wahl der siRNA‐(Ziel)Sequenz, die nach Applikation zum Tod von malignen Tumorzellen führt, wären sie die perfekte Waffe gegen solide Tumoren

Murine leukemia virus (MLV) replication monitored with fluorescent proteins

BACKGROUND: Cancer gene therapy will benefit from vectors that are able to replicate in tumor tissue and cause a bystander effect. Replication-competent murine leukemia virus (MLV) has been described to have potential as cancer therapeutics, however, MLV infection does not cause a cytopathic effect in the infected cell and viral replication can only be studied by immunostaining or measurement of reverse transcriptase activity. RESULTS: We inserted the coding sequences for green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the proline-rich region (PRR) of the ecotropic envelope protein (Env) and were able to fluorescently label MLV. This allowed us to directly monitor viral replication and attachment to target cells by flow cytometry. We used this method to study viral replication of recombinant MLVs and split viral genomes, which were generated by replacement of the MLV env gene with the red fluorescent protein (RFP) and separately cloning GFP-Env into a retroviral vector. Co-transfection of both plasmids into target cells resulted in the generation of semi-replicative vectors, and the two color labeling allowed to determine the distribution of the individual genomes in the target cells and was indicative for the occurrence of recombination events. CONCLUSIONS: Fluorescently labeled MLVs are excellent tools for the study of factors that influence viral replication and can be used to optimize MLV-based replication-competent viruses or vectors for gene therapy

Vaccination directed against the human endogenous retrovirus-K envelope protein inhibits tumor growth in a murine model system

Human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) genomes are chromosomally integrated in all cells of an individual. They are normally transcriptionally silenced and transmitted only vertically. Enhanced expression of HERV-K accompanied by the emergence of anti-HERV-K-directed immune responses has been observed in tumor patients and HIV-infected individuals. As HERV-K is usually not expressed and immunological tolerance development is unlikely, it is an appropriate target for the development of immunotherapies. We generated a recombinant vaccinia virus (MVA-HKenv) expressing the HERV-K envelope glycoprotein (ENV), based on the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), and established an animal model to test its vaccination efficacy. Murine renal carcinoma cells (Renca) were genetically altered to express E. coli beta-galactosidase (RLZ cells) or the HERV-K ENV gene (RLZ-HKenv cells). Intravenous injection of RLZ-HKenv cells into syngenic BALB/c mice led to the formation of pulmonary metastases, which were detectable by X-gal staining. A single vaccination of tumor-bearing mice with MVA-HKenv drastically reduced the number of pulmonary RLZ-HKenv tumor nodules compared to vaccination with wild-type MVA. Prophylactic vaccination of mice with MVA-HKenv precluded the formation of RLZ-HKenv tumor nodules, whereas wild-type MVA-vaccinated animals succumbed to metastasis. Protection from tumor formation correlated with enhanced HERV-K ENV-specific killing activity of splenocytes. These data demonstrate for the first time that HERV-K ENV is a useful target for vaccine development and might offer new treatment opportunities for diverse types of cancer

Selective gene silencing by viral delivery of short hairpin RNA

RNA interference (RNAi) technology has not only become a powerful tool for functional genomics, but also allows rapid drug target discovery and in vitro validation of these targets in cell culture. Furthermore, RNAi represents a promising novel therapeutic option for treating human diseases, in particular cancer. Selective gene silencing by RNAi can be achieved essentially by two nucleic acid based methods: i) cytoplasmic delivery of short double-stranded (ds) interfering RNA oligonucleotides (siRNA), where the gene silencing effect is only transient in nature, and possibly not suitable for all applications; or ii) nuclear delivery of gene expression cassettes that express short hairpin RNA (shRNA), which are processed like endogenous interfering RNA and lead to stable gene down-regulation. Both processes involve the use of nucleic acid based drugs, which are highly charged and do not cross cell membranes by free diffusion. Therefore, in vivo delivery of RNAi therapeutics must use technology that enables the RNAi therapeutic to traverse biological membrane barriers in vivo. Viruses and the vectors derived from them carry out precisely this task and have become a major delivery system for shRNA. Here, we summarize and compare different currently used viral delivery systems, give examples of in vivo applications, and indicate trends for new developments, such as replicating viruses for shRNA delivery to cancer cells

Functional F11L and K1L genes in modified vaccinia virus Ankara restore virus-induced cell motility but not growth in human and murine cells

AbstractModified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) was generated by serial passaging in chicken embryo fibroblasts. During this attenuation, MVA lost the capacity to productively grow in human and most other mammalian cell lines, as well as acquiring a multitude of deletions and mutations in the MVA genome. This means that the precise molecular basis for the MVA host-range restriction is still unknown. The vaccinia virus (VACV) genes F11L and K1L are mutated or truncated in MVA. F11L was previously implicated in VACV-induced cell motility and virion maturation. Here, we demonstrate that the restoration of F11L gene expression in MVA rescued virus-induced cell motility, but had no impact on MVA virion maturation and host-range restriction. Additional insertion of the K1L gene, which restores MVA replication in RK-13 cells, was not sufficient to extend MVA growth capacity to other mammalian cells