Impact of Biological Sex on Immune Activation and Frequency of the Latent HIV Reservoir during Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy

Background: Persistent HIV infection of long-lived resting CD4 T cells, despite antiretroviral therapy (ART), remains a barrier to HIV cure. Women have a more robust type 1 interferon response during HIV infection relative to men, contributing to lower initial plasma viremia. As lower viremia during acute infection is associated with reduced frequency of latent HIV infection, we hypothesized that women on ART would have a lower frequency of latent HIV compared to men. Methods: ART-suppressed, HIV seropositive women (n = 22) were matched 1:1 to 22 of 39 ART-suppressed men. We also compared the 22 women to all 39 men, adjusting for age and race as covariates. We measured the frequency of latent HIV using the quantitative viral outgrowth assay, the intact proviral DNA assay, and total HIV gag DNA. We also performed activation/exhaustion immunophenotyping on peripheral blood mononuclear cells and quantified interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression in CD4 T cells. Results: We did not observe evident sex differences in the frequency of persistent HIV in resting CD4 T cells. Immunophenotyping and CD4 T-cell ISG expression analysis revealed marginal differences across the sexes. Conclusions: Differences in HIV reservoir frequency and immune activation appear to be small across sexes during long-term suppressive therapy

A Multi-level process view of new venture emergence

Multi-Level Issues in Creativity and Innovation is Volume 7 of Research in Multi-Level Issues , an annual series that provides an outlet for the discussion of multi-level problems and solutions across a variety of fields of study. Using a scientific debate format of a key scholarly essay followed by two commentaries and a rebuttal, we present, in this series, theoretical work, significant empirical studies, methodological developments, analytical techniques, and philosophical treatments to advance the field of multi-level studies, regardless of disciplinary perspective.Similar to Volumes 1 through 6 (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002, 2004, 2006; Dansereau & Yammarino, 2003, 2005, 2007), this volume, Volume 7, edited by Mumford, Hunter, and Bedell-Avers, contains five major essays with commentaries and rebuttals that cover a range of topics, but in the realms of creativity and innovation. In particular, the five critical essays offer extensive literature reviews, new model developments, methodological advancements, and some data for the study of creativity and social influence, innovation and planning, creativity and cognitive processes, sub-system configuration, and new venture emergence. While each of the major essays, and associated commentaries and rebuttals, is unique in orientation, they show a common bond in raising and addressing multi-level issues or discussing problems and solutions that involve multiple levels of analysis in creativity and innovation.It provides in-depth scholarly information on multiple level issues in organizations and time. It is international in scope