Securing access to international markets

The unconditional extension of the fruits of trade negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is giving way to bilateral and other discriminatory trade agreements. Led by the United States, GATT has taken a strong position against discrimination: the benefits of negotiations under GATT generally have been extended to all contracting parties without specific conditions or reservations. This unconditional extension of benefits - the unconditional most favored nation principle (MFN) - is now under considerable pressure. This paper finds that the threat to multilateralism and small traders will be reduced if : (i) new trade liberalizing"clubs"that are formed in the Uruguay Round, or elsewhere, are open to new members on the same terms that apply to the founders; (ii) compliance with the rules of such clubs is determined multilaterally and not unilaterally by any existing members; (iii) markets that are levered open are opened in a nondiscriminatory manner; (iv) preferential trading agreements conform to the relevant GATT rule - Article XXIV and; (v) the main safeguard provision of GATT (Article XIX) remains nondiscriminatory.TF054105-DONOR FUNDED OPERATION ADMINISTRATION FEE INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT,Trade Policy,Economic Theory&Research,Trade and Regional Integration,Environmental Economics&Policies

Export promoting subsidies and what to do about them

This paper addresses the questions of what is a subsidy, which subsidies affect international trade, and why countries may wish to subsidize, particularly exporting industries. It considers the effects of these subsidies on other countries and why trading partners may wish to outlaw or countervail such export promoting subsidies. The paper then outlines the provisions of the GATT and the Subsidies Code as they relate to subsidies; this is followed by some data on the extent to which these provisions have been used, and by a consideration of the purposes for which they appear, in fact, to have been used. The question is then raised as to whether or not the proscribing/countervailing approach is in fact the best way to constrain subsidies and whether, if such control is desired, other approaches may be preferable and feasible.Environmental Economics&Policies,Economic Theory&Research,TF054105-DONOR FUNDED OPERATION ADMINISTRATION FEE INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT,Tax Law,Banks&Banking Reform

Introduction

North-South relations have been characterized by three ideological phases. The first started with a long period of ideological harmony, lasting into the early 1970s. It was interrupted by OPEC and the period of radical Southern ferment, to be followed by another, opposed divide when the United States shifted into conservative ideological posturing and actions with the first Reagan Administration. The second Reagan Administration’s shift to the Baker Plan represents the third phase but can also be regarded as consistent with that ideological position

Introduction

North-South relations have been characterized by three ideological phases. The first started with a long period of ideological harmony, lasting into the early 1970s. It was interrupted by OPEC and the period of radical Southern ferment, to be followed by another, opposed divide when the United States shifted into conservative ideological posturing and actions with the first Reagan Administration. The second Reagan Administration’s shift to the Baker Plan represents the third phase but can also be regarded as consistent with that ideological position

Connecting Earth Observation to High-Throughput Biodiversity Data

There is much interest in using Earth Observation (EO) technology to track biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ecosystem services, understandable given the fast pace of biodiversity loss. However, because most biodiversity is invisible to EO, EO-based indicators could be misleading, which can reduce the effectiveness of nature conservation and even unintentionally decrease conservation effort. We describe an approach that combines automated recording devices, high-throughput DNA sequencing, and modern ecological modelling to extract much more of the information available in EO data. This approach is achievable now, 62 offering efficient and near-real time monitoring of management impacts on biodiversity and its functions and services

Connecting Earth observation to high-throughput biodiversity data

Understandably, given the fast pace of biodiversity loss, there is much interest in using Earth observation technology to track biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services. However, because most biodiversity is invisible to Earth observation, indicators based on Earth observation could be misleading and reduce the effectiveness of nature conservation and even unintentionally decrease conservation effort. We describe an approach that combines automated recording devices, high-throughput DNA sequencing and modern ecological modelling to extract much more of the information available in Earth observation data. This approach is achievable now, offering efficient and near-real-time monitoring of management impacts on biodiversity and its functions and services

Comprehensive Cancer-Predisposition Gene Testing in an Adult Multiple Primary Tumor Series Shows a Broad Range of Deleterious Variants and Atypical Tumor Phenotypes.

Multiple primary tumors (MPTs) affect a substantial proportion of cancer survivors and can result from various causes, including inherited predisposition. Currently, germline genetic testing of MPT-affected individuals for variants in cancer-predisposition genes (CPGs) is mostly targeted by tumor type. We ascertained pre-assessed MPT individuals (with at least two primary tumors by age 60 years or at least three by 70 years) from genetics centers and performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) on 460 individuals from 440 families. Despite previous negative genetic assessment and molecular investigations, pathogenic variants in moderate- and high-risk CPGs were detected in 67/440 (15.2%) probands. WGS detected variants that would not be (or were not) detected by targeted resequencing strategies, including low-frequency structural variants (6/440 [1.4%] probands). In most individuals with a germline variant assessed as pathogenic or likely pathogenic (P/LP), at least one of their tumor types was characteristic of variants in the relevant CPG. However, in 29 probands (42.2% of those with a P/LP variant), the tumor phenotype appeared discordant. The frequency of individuals with truncating or splice-site CPG variants and at least one discordant tumor type was significantly higher than in a control population (χ2 = 43.642; p ≤ 0.0001). 2/67 (3%) probands with P/LP variants had evidence of multiple inherited neoplasia allele syndrome (MINAS) with deleterious variants in two CPGs. Together with variant detection rates from a previous series of similarly ascertained MPT-affected individuals, the present results suggest that first-line comprehensive CPG analysis in an MPT cohort referred to clinical genetics services would detect a deleterious variant in about a third of individuals.JW is supported by a Cancer Research UK Cambridge Cancer Centre Clinical Research Training Fellowship. Funding for the NIHR BioResource – Rare diseases project was provided by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR, grant number RG65966). ERM acknowledges support from the European Research Council (Advanced Researcher Award), NIHR (Senior Investigator Award and Cambridge NIHR Biomedical Research Centre), Cancer Research UK Cambridge Cancer Centre and Medical Research Council Infrastructure Award. The University of Cambridge has received salary support in respect of EM from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS or Department of Health. DGE is an NIHR Senior Investigator and is supported by the all Manchester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre