Deciphering The Early Evolution of Echinoderms with Cambrian Fossils

Echinoderms are a major group of invertebrate deuterostomes that have been an important component of marine ecosystems throughout the Phanerozoic. Their fossil record extends back to the Cambrian, when several disparate groups appear in different palaeocontinents at about the same time. Many of these early forms exhibit character combinations that differ radically from extant taxa, and thus their anatomy and phylogeny have long been controversial. Deciphering the earliest evolution of echinoderms therefore requires a detailed understanding of the morphology of Cambrian fossils, as well as the selection of an appropriate root and the identification of homologies for use in phylogenetic analysis. Based on the sister‐group relationships and ontogeny of modern species and new fossil discoveries, we now know that the first echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical, represented in the fossil record by Ctenoimbricata and some early ctenocystoids. The next branch in echinoderm phylogeny is represented by the asymmetrical cinctans and solutes, with an echinoderm‐type ambulacral system originating in the more crownward of these groups (solutes). The first radial echinoderms are the helicoplacoids, which possess a triradial body plan with three ambulacra radiating from a lateral mouth. Helicocystoids represent the first pentaradial echinoderms and have the mouth facing upwards with five radiating recumbent ambulacra. Pentaradial echinoderms diversified rapidly from the beginning of their history, and the most significant differences between groups are recorded in the construction of the oral area and ambulacra, as well as the nature of their feeding appendages. Taken together, this provides a clear narrative of the early evolution of the echinoderm body plan

Virtual paleontology:computed-aided analysis of fossil form and function

‘Virtual paleontology’ entails the use of computational methods to assist in the three-dimensional (3-D) visualization and analysis of fossils, and has emerged as a powerful approach for research on the history of life. Three-dimensional imaging techniques allow poorly understood or previously unknown anatomies of fossil plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, as well as microfossils and trace fossils, to be described in much greater detail than formerly possible, and are applicable to a wide range of preservation types and specimen sizes (Table 1). These methods include non-destructive high-resolution scanning technologies such as conventional X-ray micro-tomography and synchrotron-based X-ray tomography. In addition, form and function can be rigorously investigated through quantitative analysis of computer models, for example finite-element analysis.</jats:p

A virtual world of paleontology

Computer-aided visualization and analysis of fossils has revolutionized the study of extinct organisms. Novel techniques allow fossils to be characterized in three dimensions and in unprecedented detail. This has enabled paleontologists to gain important insights into their anatomy, development, and preservation. New protocols allow more objective reconstructions of fossil organisms, including soft tissues, from incomplete remains. The resulting digital reconstructions can be used in functional analyses, rigorously testing long-standing hypotheses regarding the paleobiology of extinct organisms. These approaches are transforming our understanding of long-studied fossil groups, and of the narratives of organismal and ecological evolution that have been built upon them

Vertically migrating Isoxys and the early Cambrian biological pump.

The biological pump is crucial for transporting nutrients fixed by surface-dwelling primary producers to demersal animal communities. Indeed, the establishment of an efficient biological pump was likely a key factor enabling the diversification of animals over 500 Myr ago during the Cambrian explosion. The modern biological pump operates through two main vectors: the passive sinking of aggregates of organic matter, and the active vertical migration of animals. The coevolution of eukaryotes and sinking aggregates is well understood for the Proterozoic and Cambrian; however, little attention has been paid to the establishment of the vertical migration of animals. Here we investigate the morphological variation and hydrodynamic performance of the Cambrian euarthropod Isoxys. We combine elliptical Fourier analysis of carapace shape with computational fluid dynamics simulations to demonstrate that Isoxys species likely occupied a variety of niches in Cambrian oceans, including vertical migrants, providing the first quantitative evidence that some Cambrian animals were adapted for vertical movement in the water column. Vertical migration was one of several early Cambrian metazoan innovations that led to the biological pump taking on a modern-style architecture over 500 Myr ago

Use of a Rule Tool in Data Analysis Decision Making

Without any doubt, research work is an integrate part of any educational pursuit. However, students engaging in researches often find it difficult to choose an appropriate statistical analysis instrument for their selected data. This paper presents Research Statistical Analysis – Expert (RSA-Expert) which can be employed in selecting appropriate statistical instrument for a desired purpose. The Visirule software was used as a decision supporting tool, in which the rules are basically and precisely presented using Logic Programming Model. The RSA-Expert discussed in this work can be of great use to researchers in making a firm decision in utilizing suitable statistical data analysis in researches. Keywords: Research, Visirule, Analysis, Univariate, Bivariat

Suspension feeding in the enigmatic Ediacaran organism Tribrachidium demonstrates complexity of Neoproterozoic ecosystems

The first diverse and morphologically complex macroscopic communities appear in the late Ediacaran period, 575 to 541 million years ago (Ma). The enigmatic organisms that make up these communities are thought to have formed simple ecosystems characterized by a narrow range of feeding modes, with most restricted to the passive absorption of organic particles (osmotrophy). We test between competing feeding models for the iconic Ediacaran organism Tribrachidium heraldicum using computational fluid dynamics. We show that the external morphology of Tribrachidium passively directs water flow toward the apex of the organism and generates low-velocity eddies above apical “pits.” These patterns of fluid flow are inconsistent with osmotrophy and instead support the interpretation of Tribrachidium as a passive suspension feeder. This finding provides the oldest empirical evidence for suspension feeding at 555 to 550 Ma, ~10 million years before the Cambrian explosion, and demonstrates that Ediacaran organisms formed more complex ecosystems in the latest Precambrian, involving a larger number of ecological guilds, than currently appreciated.</p

Cambrian cinctan echinoderms shed light on feeding in the ancestral deuterostome

Reconstructing the feeding mode of the latest common ancestor of deuterostomes is key to elucidating the early evolution of feeding in chordates and allied phyla; however, it is debated whether the ancestral deuterostome was a tentaculate feeder or a pharyngeal filter feeder. To address this, we evaluated the hydrodynamics of feeding in a group of fossil stem-group echinoderms (cinctans) using computational fluid dynamics. We simulated water flow past three-dimensional digital models of a Cambrian fossil cinctan in a range of possible life positions, adopting both passive tentacular feeding and active pharyngeal filter feeding. The results demonstrate that an orientation with the mouth facing downstream of the current was optimal for drag and lift reduction. Moreover, they show that there was almost no flow to the mouth and associated marginal groove under simulations of passive feeding, whereas considerable flow towards the animal was observed for active feeding, which would have enhanced the transport of suspended particles to the mouth. This strongly suggests that cinctans were active pharyngeal filter feeders, like modern enteropneust hemichordates and urochordates, indicating that the ancestral deuterostome employed a similar feeding strategy

Cambrian edrioasteroid reveals new mechanism for secondary reduction of the skeleton in echinoderms

Echinoderms are characterized by a distinctive high-magnesium calcite endoskeleton as adults, but elements of this have been drastically reduced in some groups. Herein, we describe a new pentaradial echinoderm, Yorkicystis haefneri n. gen. n. sp., which provides, to our knowledge, the oldest evidence of secondary non-mineralization of the echinoderm skeleton. This material was collected from the Cambrian Kinzers Formation in York (Pennsylvania, USA) and is dated as ca 510 Ma. Detailed morphological observations demonstrate that the ambulacra (i.e. axial region) are composed of flooring and cover plates, but the rest of the body (i.e. extraxial region) is preserved as a dark film and lacks any evidence of skeletal plating. Moreover, X-ray fluorescence analysis reveals that the axial region is elevated in iron. Based on our morphological and chemical data and on taphonomic comparisons with other fossils from the Kinzers Formation, we infer that the axial region was originally calcified, while the extraxial region was non-mineralized. Phylogenetic analyses recover Yorkicystis as an edrioasteroid, indicating that this partial absence of skeleton resulted from a secondary reduction. We hypothesize that skeletal reduction resulted from lack of expression of the skeletogenic gene regulatory network in the extraxial body wall during development. Secondary reduction of the skeleton in Yorkicystis might have allowed for greater flexibility of the body wall