Context2Name: A Deep Learning-Based Approach to Infer Natural Variable Names from Usage Contexts

Most of the JavaScript code deployed in the wild has been minified, a process in which identifier names are replaced with short, arbitrary and meaningless names. Minified code occupies less space, but also makes the code extremely difficult to manually inspect and understand. This paper presents Context2Name, a deep learningbased technique that partially reverses the effect of minification by predicting natural identifier names for minified names. The core idea is to predict from the usage context of a variable a name that captures the meaning of the variable. The approach combines a lightweight, token-based static analysis with an auto-encoder neural network that summarizes usage contexts and a recurrent neural network that predict natural names for a given usage context. We evaluate Context2Name with a large corpus of real-world JavaScript code and show that it successfully predicts 47.5% of all minified identifiers while taking only 2.9 milliseconds on average to predict a name. A comparison with the state-of-the-art tools JSNice and JSNaughty shows that our approach performs comparably in terms of accuracy while improving in terms of efficiency. Moreover, Context2Name complements the state-of-the-art by predicting 5.3% additional identifiers that are missed by both existing tools

Making polycentrism: Governance innovation in small and medium-sized cities in the West Midlands and Barcelona metropolitan regions

The development of metropolitan regions shows increasing patterns of polycentrism, with growing relevance of small and medium-sized municipalities, suburbs and outskirts, which become economic subcentres within enlarging metropolitan realities. Nevertheless, governance analysis has focused primarily on the role of central cities or on the metropolitan region as a whole. This article focuses on the social configuration of small and medium-sized municipalities as collective actors and their role in the emergence of polycentrism. The article analyses how the economic, political and social hegemonic actors in these cities organise innovative strategies to ensure the centrality of their area in the metropolitan region presenting the analysis of two areas in two European metropolitan regions; the Black Country in the West Midlands conurbation (United Kingdom) and the Vallès Occidental area in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (Spain). In both areas, innovative forms of governance oriented towards local economic development and social cohesion have emerged involving municipalities, chambers of commerce, trade unions and third sector actors. Beyond the implementation of local policies these forms of governance reinforce specific scales for economic agglomeration to reinforce subcentrality of certain municipalities. The analysis of these cases shows that there are dynamics of competitiveness and collaboration within metropolitan regions in which subcentres are trying to compete with the central city and but at the same time taking profit from the overall metropolitan strategy in the global arena

The EU-Africa Energy Cooperation: Challenges and Opportunities for Public and Private Businesses

Newsletter - cabinet d'avocatsEnergy security, sustainable development and mutual benefits are the three keywords of the longstanding EU-Africa cooperation in the field of energy. Because of its huge energy reserves and its green energy potential, the African continent constitutes an area that cannot be underestimated by the European Union. This article aims at identify the legal framework created by the EU-Africa energy cooperation and to assess its value for public and private businesses

Les grandes tendances de l’européanisation des systèmes pénaux nationaux

Cette étude a pour objet de décrire, en ce qui concerne le droit pénal matériel et formel, un phénomène original : celui d’un rapprochement entre des droits nationaux d’un continent et comme ce continent est l’Europe, on peut parler d’une européanisation des droits pénaux nationaux.Le thème est complexe pour plusieurs raisons. D’abord car ce phénomène d’européanisation affecte une criminalité transfrontalière organisée que l’on  saisit mal. La complexité vient ensuite de ce qu’il y a deux Europes, celle du Conseil de l’Europe (47 États) et celle de l’Union européenne (27 des 47). Or ces deux Europes sont productrices de normes considérables de nature textuelle pour les unes (conventions, décisions-cadres…) et jurisprudentielles pour les autres (arrêts de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme et de la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes).Complexe, le thème est aussi dual. L’européanisation est faite en effet d’harmonisation et de coopération, la première étant la condition de la seconde. Au titre de l’harmonisation, il faut citer les nombreux textes évoqués ci-dessus qui, par leur transposition dans les droits nationaux, provoquent un rapprochement de ceux-ci. Au titre de la coopération, on doit évoquer au moins ces deux institutions phares de l’Union européenne que sont Europol et Eurojust. Ce dernier invite les États à mener des enquêtes pour des affaires lourdes et pourrait peut-être un jour, sur la base du Traité de Lisbonne (non encore en vigueur), déclencher certaines poursuites.The purpose of this study consists in illuminating an original phenomenon with regard to material and formal penal law, namely the narrowing gap between national legal systems on one continent… and since the continent in question is Europe, we may refer to this as the Europeanization of such national penal legal systems.This theme is an intricate one for many reasons. First, because the Europeanization phenomenon has an impact on organized cross-border criminality that eludes easy analysis. Further intricacy emanates from the existence of two Europes, on the one hand, the Council of Europe (47 Member States) and on the other, the European Union (27 of the 47). Notably, these two Europes are high-volume producers of textual standards (agreements, framework decisions) in the first case and in the second, voluminous jurisprudential rulings handed out by the European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Communities.Beyond intricacy, the theme is also two tiered. Europeanization is in fact the product of harmonization and cooperation, the first tier being a condition for the second one. Harmonization issues from the many aforementioned texts which, when transposed into national legal systems, ultimately draw the latter together. As for cooperation, two outstanding European Union examples are worthy of mention : Europol and Eurojust. The latter invites Member States to join together for enquiries into major cases and this may one day — based upon the Treaty of Lisbon (presently not in force) — result in the taking of criminal proceedings

Pays émergents et droit international : l'enjeu de l'adaptation

International audienceInternational Law and the Emerging Countries in the XXIst CenturySi la montée en puissance des pays émergents a déjà fait l'objet de nombreuses recherches dans les domaines de l'économie et de la science politique, il existe aujourd'hui peu d'études juridiques d'ensemble consacrées à cette question pourtant incontournable pour la compréhension des relations internationales contemporaines et de la formation du droit international au XXIe siècle. Or, face à l'impact des pays émergents sur le droit international, il semble exister un double besoin d'adaptation. D'une part, bien évidemment, tous les États de la planète qu'ils soient développés ou en développement devront trouver sur le plan juridique les voies et moyens permettant de prendre en considération la place et le rôle des pays émergents dans le système international. D'autre part, la seconde exigence concerne la doctrine juridique qui sera très certainement de plus en plus appelée à analyser le développement du droit international à l'aune de l'influence des pays émergents. En ce sens, cette nouvelle livraison de L'Observateur des Nations Unies propose une série d'éclairages relatifs à l'étude juridique de l'action internationale des pays émergents

Crisis, (re-)informalization process and protest: the case of Barcelona

Analyses of responses to the crisis in Southern European cities have underlined political unrest and social mobilization as the result of growing inequality and the imposition of cuts. This article analyses these responses in terms of the return of reciprocity practices in a context of weakening citizenship rights. From this point of view, these responses can be understood as forms of informality as is analysed in cities of the global south. Citizens' self-organisation to cover basic needs can be read as strategies of resistance such as quiet encroachment. Some of these strategies are politicized, becoming part of the political struggle for rights. Through the case of Barcelona, this article analyses how different groups are politicizing these practices and by focusing on the case of sub-Saharan migrants living in abandoned factories in the city in particular. The analysis shows how in the context of weakening or the absence of citizenship rights, there is a growth of informal practices that can be unevenly politicized by different groups

The survival of the kindest: a theoretical review and empirical investigation of explanations to the evolution of human altruism

Charles Darwin was concerned that his entire theory of evolution by natural selection might be negated by a phenomenon prevalent in a variety of species including humans; namely altruism. If natural selection really favored the survival of the fittest, how could a strategy so irrational as to sacrifice oneself for the well-being of unrelated others survive? A number of scientists have contributed valuable theories to elucidate the �paradox of altruism�. However, in spite of the merits of these theories, there is still dissension about the origins of some particular oddities in the altruistic tendencies of humans, namely why humans act selflessly even when they are unobserved and when they are benefiting a stranger whom they will never meet again. The present doctoral thesis sheds light on answers to the question how human altruism, with all its specific features, could evolve. In the first part, both prominent (e.g., kin selection, reciprocal altruism, etc.) and less recognized theories on the evolution of altruism (e.g., green-beard altruism, the theory of the extended phenotype, etc.) are reviewed. Based on an integrative overview, it is analyzed how much of the altruism puzzle has been solved yet and which specific phenomena are still open to conjecture. With the aim of adding new insights to the issue, the second part of this work presents three empirical studies that investigate in how far prosociality might have been favored (1) by processes of assortation, i.e. the grouping of altruists, and (2) by mating strategies. Indeed, assortation may be invoked as an explanation for the evolution of altruism, if the selfish advantage of egoistic individuals is out-competed by benefits of mutually cooperating altruists. However, to make assortation work as a driver of the evolution of altruism, two prerequisites have to be fulfilled: first, individuals have to be able to distinguish altruists from egoists, and second, altruists have to elect like-minded individuals for mutual cooperation. The first study investigates whether humans are really able to identify altruists based on first impression. To test this, judges watched 20-second silent video clips of unknown target persons and were asked to estimate the behavior of these target persons in a dictator game, which measures prosociality. Estimates were significantly better than chance indicating that humans can identify the altruistic dispositions of unknown persons. The second study investigates whether individuals, in genuine groups, can identify the altruistic tendencies of their daily interaction partners. It further examines whether prosociality influences the formation of friendships in such that individuals assort themselves along the dimension of altruism. Students of six secondary school classes played an anonymous dictator game that functioned as a measure of altruism. Afterwards and unannounced, the students had to estimate their classmates� decisions and did so better than chance. Sociometry revealed that altruists were friends with more altruistic persons than were egoists. The results thus confirm the existence of the two prerequisites for the evolution of altruism through assortation: the predictability of altruistic behavior and the association of altruists. However, although the theory of assortation may explain the evolution of altruism in general, it does not explain the occurrence of inter-individual differences in altruism. The third study deals exactly with this matter. It investigates whether different levels of prosociality might have evolved as a result of different mating strategies, namely inter-individual variations in the propensity to engage in either short-term mating or long-term mating. Specifically, it assumes that prosociality is a necessity for acquiring a long-term partner, especially if an individual has to compensate for deficits in physical attractiveness. To find out whether this idea is true, the study tested whether individuals look out for different levels of prosociality depending on whether they are searching for a short-term mate or a long-term mate. Judges watched short video-clips of target persons and received additional information on the targets� prosociality. Judges were then asked to rate each of the target persons with regard to their desirability as a short-term and long-term mate. While prosociality was a significant predictor for long-term desirability, it was irrelevant when subjects chose a short-term mate. The results suggest that although altruism is costly, at least for some individuals it might be a wretched necessity to obtain access to mates and to reproduce. In the general discussion, the results of all three studies are consolidated. Conclusions are drawn as to the consequences of these findings for the study of human altruism. Finally, directions for future research are presented

Sous les pavés, Paris Plages

National audienceURL : http://www.metropolitiques.eu/Sous-les-paves-Paris-Plages.htm