A Valdemár-háborúk és a stralsundi béke

The war between the Hanseatic cities and Denmark between 1367 and 1370 and the Treaty of Stralsund concluding it have entered the public consciousness as the peak of the history of the Hanseatic League, although in reality, it looked different in many ways. The Hanseatic cities of Lower Saxony and Westphalia did not take part in the conflict, while there were some among the warring cities who were not members of the Hanseatic League, and even princes and kings joined the military alliance against Denmark. The study is about the causes of the armed conflict, the invasion of Gotland by Valdemar IV, King of Denmark, (22-27 July 1361), the response of most of the Hanseatic cities, the formation of the alliance of Greifswald (1 August 1361), joined by Magnus, King of Sweden and Haakon, King of Norway. The first war against Denmark brought the defeat of the alliance of Greifswald (1362-1364), but the new anti-Valdemar coalition established with the Confederation of Cologne (1367) won a significant victory in the subsequent war, which Denmark recognised in the Treaty of Stralsund (24 May 1370)

Nicolaus von Redewitz – ein Diplomat und Informant des Deutschen Ordens am Hof von Sigismund von Luxemburg

Nicolaus von Redewitz – the Teutonic Order’s diplomat and informant in the court of Sigismund of Luxembourg   At the end of 1422, Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, allowed the Teutonic Order to have a permanent diplomatic representation in his court, in the person of Nicolaus von Redewitz. This was related to the fact that from the beginning of the 1420s, the Ottoman Empire posed an increasingly serious threat to the southern borders of Hungary again, and Sigismund wanted to win over the Order for the fight against the Turks. Arriving in the court of the king, von Redewitz kept the Grand Master of the order informed of Sigismund’s political plans, decisions, negotiations, military actions against the Turks, and all-important events. A recurring theme in his letters was the king’s urge that the Order take on the defence of the southern borders of the Hungarian Kingdom. In return, he first offered the Grand Master the Burzenland in Southern Transylvania, from where Andrew II, King of Hungary, expelled the Order in 1225, then the Banate of Severin by the lower Danube. Following long negotiations, at the end of July 1429, a few Teutonic Knights arrived in Hungary. These knights did not undertake the armed protection of the southern borders, only its organisation. Sigismund entrusted the management of twenty-one fortresses and military watch-posts to the Knights, who envisioned the reinforcement of the defence with the involvement of mercenaries. However, the Hungarian Treasury was unable to provide the expenses for this plan. When, at the end of the summer of 1432, the Turks launched an attack at the lower Danube, they managed to occupy three fortresses under the control of the Order. Recognising that the Order’s idea of the protection of the borders is impossible to finance, at the end of 1434, Sigismund agreed to the gradual return of the Teutonic Knights who had arrived in Hungary in 1429 to Prussia.Nicolaus von Redewitz – the Teutonic Order’s diplomat and informant in the court of Sigismund of Luxembourg   At the end of 1422, Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, allowed the Teutonic Order to have a permanent diplomatic representation in his court, in the person of Nicolaus von Redewitz. This was related to the fact that from the beginning of the 1420s, the Ottoman Empire posed an increasingly serious threat to the southern borders of Hungary again, and Sigismund wanted to win over the Order for the fight against the Turks. Arriving in the court of the king, von Redewitz kept the Grand Master of the order informed of Sigismund’s political plans, decisions, negotiations, military actions against the Turks, and all-important events. A recurring theme in his letters was the king’s urge that the Order take on the defence of the southern borders of the Hungarian Kingdom. In return, he first offered the Grand Master the Burzenland in Southern Transylvania, from where Andrew II, King of Hungary, expelled the Order in 1225, then the Banate of Severin by the lower Danube. Following long negotiations, at the end of July 1429, a few Teutonic Knights arrived in Hungary. These knights did not undertake the armed protection of the southern borders, only its organisation. Sigismund entrusted the management of twenty-one fortresses and military watch-posts to the Knights, who envisioned the reinforcement of the defence with the involvement of mercenaries. However, the Hungarian Treasury was unable to provide the expenses for this plan. When, at the end of the summer of 1432, the Turks launched an attack at the lower Danube, they managed to occupy three fortresses under the control of the Order. Recognising that the Order’s idea of the protection of the borders is impossible to finance, at the end of 1434, Sigismund agreed to the gradual return of the Teutonic Knights who had arrived in Hungary in 1429 to Prussia.Nicolaus von Redewitz – the Teutonic Order’s diplomat and informant in the court of Sigismund of Luxembourg   At the end of 1422, Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, allowed the Teutonic Order to have a permanent diplomatic representation in his court, in the person of Nicolaus von Redewitz. This was related to the fact that from the beginning of the 1420s, the Ottoman Empire posed an increasingly serious threat to the southern borders of Hungary again, and Sigismund wanted to win over the Order for the fight against the Turks. Arriving in the court of the king, von Redewitz kept the Grand Master of the order informed of Sigismund’s political plans, decisions, negotiations, military actions against the Turks, and all-important events. A recurring theme in his letters was the king’s urge that the Order take on the defence of the southern borders of the Hungarian Kingdom. In return, he first offered the Grand Master the Burzenland in Southern Transylvania, from where Andrew II, King of Hungary, expelled the Order in 1225, then the Banate of Severin by the lower Danube. Following long negotiations, at the end of July 1429, a few Teutonic Knights arrived in Hungary. These knights did not undertake the armed protection of the southern borders, only its organisation. Sigismund entrusted the management of twenty-one fortresses and military watch-posts to the Knights, who envisioned the reinforcement of the defence with the involvement of mercenaries. However, the Hungarian Treasury was unable to provide the expenses for this plan. When, at the end of the summer of 1432, the Turks launched an attack at the lower Danube, they managed to occupy three fortresses under the control of the Order. Recognising that the Order’s idea of the protection of the borders is impossible to finance, at the end of 1434, Sigismund agreed to the gradual return of the Teutonic Knights who had arrived in Hungary in 1429 to Prussia

Eine Stadt ohne Mauer und Vorstädte, aber mit großem Landgut: Debrecen im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit

Unlike most other European cities, Debrecen, on the eastern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain, developed rapidly in the Middle Ages and became the most populous, largest and wealthiest city in Hungary in the early modern period with neither walls nor suburbs. Its own and rented land made it one of the most significant landowners in the country, with large-scale cattle farming. The oxen fattened on the plains (hun. puszta) were sold on markets in Italy, Austria, Germany and Silesia. In addition to cattle exports, Debrecen also traded extensively in many other products, being at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west routes across the Great Plain. Its development was greatly facilitated by its landlords, who were the chief royal officials of Hungary in the 14th and 15th centuries. Debrecen was formed as a manorial centre in the second half of the 13th century by the merger of three villages and was granted a charter of city privileges by King Louis I in 1361. In 1405, Sigismund of Luxembourg allowed his citizens to build stone walls around their cities, but Debrecen's considerable size, the lack of stone on the plains and thus the high construction costs meant that the city did not build stone walls later on either. This allowed it to grow, and so, unlike in walled cities, no suburb developed in Debrecen. The earth bank and the palisade wall that surrounded the town were gradually moved outwards over time, following the growth of the city.  Unlike most other European cities, Debrecen, on the eastern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain, developed rapidly in the Middle Ages and became the most populous, largest and wealthiest city in Hungary in the early modern period with neither walls nor suburbs. Its own and rented land made it one of the most significant landowners in the country, with large-scale cattle farming. The oxen fattened on the plains (hun. puszta) were sold on markets in Italy, Austria, Germany and Silesia. In addition to cattle exports, Debrecen also traded extensively in many other products, being at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west routes across the Great Plain. Its development was greatly facilitated by its landlords, who were the chief royal officials of Hungary in the 14th and 15th centuries. Debrecen was formed as a manorial centre in the second half of the 13th century by the merger of three villages and was granted a charter of city privileges by King Louis I in 1361. In 1405, Sigismund of Luxembourg allowed his citizens to build stone walls around their cities, but Debrecen's considerable size, the lack of stone on the plains and thus the high construction costs meant that the city did not build stone walls later on either. This allowed it to grow, and so, unlike in walled cities, no suburb developed in Debrecen. The earth bank and the palisade wall that surrounded the town were gradually moved outwards over time, following the growth of the city.  Unlike most other European cities, Debrecen, on the eastern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain, developed rapidly in the Middle Ages and became the most populous, largest and wealthiest city in Hungary in the early modern period with neither walls nor suburbs. Its own and rented land made it one of the most significant landowners in the country, with large-scale cattle farming. The oxen fattened on the plains (hun. puszta) were sold on markets in Italy, Austria, Germany and Silesia. In addition to cattle exports, Debrecen also traded extensively in many other products, being at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west routes across the Great Plain. Its development was greatly facilitated by its landlords, who were the chief royal officials of Hungary in the 14th and 15th centuries. Debrecen was formed as a manorial centre in the second half of the 13th century by the merger of three villages and was granted a charter of city privileges by King Louis I in 1361. In 1405, Sigismund of Luxembourg allowed his citizens to build stone walls around their cities, but Debrecen's considerable size, the lack of stone on the plains and thus the high construction costs meant that the city did not build stone walls later on either. This allowed it to grow, and so, unlike in walled cities, no suburb developed in Debrecen. The earth bank and the palisade wall that surrounded the town were gradually moved outwards over time, following the growth of the city.  Unlike most other European cities, Debrecen, on the eastern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain, developed rapidly in the Middle Ages and became the most populous, largest and wealthiest city in Hungary in the early modern period with neither walls nor suburbs. Its own and rented land made it one of the most significant landowners in the country, with large-scale cattle farming. The oxen fattened on the plains (hun. puszta) were sold on markets in Italy, Austria, Germany and Silesia. In addition to cattle exports, Debrecen also traded extensively in many other products, being at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west routes across the Great Plain. Its development was greatly facilitated by its landlords, who were the chief royal officials of Hungary in the 14th and 15th centuries. Debrecen was formed as a manorial centre in the second half of the 13th century by the merger of three villages and was granted a charter of city privileges by King Louis I in 1361. In 1405, Sigismund of Luxembourg allowed his citizens to build stone walls around their cities, but Debrecen's considerable size, the lack of stone on the plains and thus the high construction costs meant that the city did not build stone walls later on either. This allowed it to grow, and so, unlike in walled cities, no suburb developed in Debrecen. The earth bank and the palisade wall that surrounded the town were gradually moved outwards over time, following the growth of the city.  Unlike most other European cities, Debrecen, on the eastern edge of the Great Hungarian Plain, developed rapidly in the Middle Ages and became the most populous, largest and wealthiest city in Hungary in the early modern period with neither walls nor suburbs. Its own and rented land made it one of the most significant landowners in the country, with large-scale cattle farming. The oxen fattened on the plains (hun. puszta) were sold on markets in Italy, Austria, Germany and Silesia. In addition to cattle exports, Debrecen also traded extensively in many other products, being at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west routes across the Great Plain. Its development was greatly facilitated by its landlords, who were the chief royal officials of Hungary in the 14th and 15th centuries. Debrecen was formed as a manorial centre in the second half of the 13th century by the merger of three villages and was granted a charter of city privileges by King Louis I in 1361. In 1405, Sigismund of Luxembourg allowed his citizens to build stone walls around their cities, but Debrecen's considerable size, the lack of stone on the plains and thus the high construction costs meant that the city did not build stone walls later on either. This allowed it to grow, and so, unlike in walled cities, no suburb developed in Debrecen. The earth bank and the palisade wall that surrounde

Das Verhältnis zwischen dem Deutschen Orden und den siebenbürgischen Bischöfen im Burzenland (1211–1225)

The Relationship between the Teutonic Order and the Bishops of Transylvania in Burzenland (1211–1225)The artical surveys why the initial good relations between the Teutonic Order and the bishops of Transylvania deteriorated, and how this led to the Order’s expulsion from Transylvania. While the activities of the Order initially elicited praise from the king of Hungary and Bishop Vilmos (William) of Transylvania, relations later cooled. The main reason for this may have benn the Pope’s likening of the Teutonic Order in 1216 to the Templars and the Hospitallers, who at that time alredy enjoyed a papal exemption, probably increasing the anxiety of the Bishop of Transilvania. This tension was further increased in 1223 when Pope Honorius III authorized the Bishop of Eger to appoint a dean for Burzenland, thereby detaching the lands of the Teutonic Order from the diocese of Transylvania, a move which the new bishop, Rainald, protested with all possible means. Despite this, the canonical dispute over the Burzenland flowed across the borders of the bishopic of Transylvania, and gradually encompassed the entire Hungarian church. The decision of 1224, whereby the papacy took the Order’s lands into the property of Saint Peter (in ius et proprietatem Beati Petri) and the special protection of the Holy See (sub speciali apostolicae sedis protectione ac defensione), was one of the main reasons for the expulsion of the Order by King András (Andrew) II after 1225.The Relationship between the Teutonic Order and the Bishops of Transylvania in Burzenland (1211–1225)The artical surveys why the initial good relations between the Teutonic Order and the bishops of Transylvania deteriorated, and how this led to the Order’s expulsion from Transylvania. While the activities of the Order initially elicited praise from the king of Hungary and Bishop Vilmos (William) of Transylvania, relations later cooled. The main reason for this may have benn the Pope’s likening of the Teutonic Order in 1216 to the Templars and the Hospitallers, who at that time alredy enjoyed a papal exemption, probably increasing the anxiety of the Bishop of Transilvania. This tension was further increased in 1223 when Pope Honorius III authorized the Bishop of Eger to appoint a dean for Burzenland, thereby detaching the lands of the Teutonic Order from the diocese of Transylvania, a move which the new bishop, Rainald, protested with all possible means. Despite this, the canonical dispute over the Burzenland flowed across the borders of the bishopic of Transylvania, and gradually encompassed the entire Hungarian church. The decision of 1224, whereby the papacy took the Order’s lands into the property of Saint Peter (in ius et proprietatem Beati Petri) and the special protection of the Holy See (sub speciali apostolicae sedis protectione ac defensione), was one of the main reasons for the expulsion of the Order by King András (Andrew) II after 1225.The Relationship between the Teutonic Order and the Bishops of Transylvania in Burzenland (1211–1225)The artical surveys why the initial good relations between the Teutonic Order and the bishops of Transylvania deteriorated, and how this led to the Order’s expulsion from Transylvania. While the activities of the Order initially elicited praise from the king of Hungary and Bishop Vilmos (William) of Transylvania, relations later cooled. The main reason for this may have benn the Pope’s likening of the Teutonic Order in 1216 to the Templars and the Hospitallers, who at that time alredy enjoyed a papal exemption, probably increasing the anxiety of the Bishop of Transilvania. This tension was further increased in 1223 when Pope Honorius III authorized the Bishop of Eger to appoint a dean for Burzenland, thereby detaching the lands of the Teutonic Order from the diocese of Transylvania, a move which the new bishop, Rainald, protested with all possible means. Despite this, the canonical dispute over the Burzenland flowed across the borders of the bishopic of Transylvania, and gradually encompassed the entire Hungarian church. The decision of 1224, whereby the papacy took the Order’s lands into the property of Saint Peter (in ius et proprietatem Beati Petri) and the special protection of the Holy See (sub speciali apostolicae sedis protectione ac defensione), was one of the main reasons for the expulsion of the Order by King András (Andrew) II after 1225