Structural Evaluation of the Effect of Pulverized Palm Kernel Shell (PPKS) on Cement-Modified Lateritic Soil Sample

There have been global efforts to reduce environmental pollution of agricultural and industrial waste products by utilizing such wastes as stabilizing agents to improve soils for various uses, especially road construction. In this research, lateritic soil sample obtained from a borrow pit was tested with varying percentages of Pulverized Palm Kernel Shell (PPKS). The soil was classified as A-6 (AASHTO classification) using standard soil laboratory tests. Laboratory tests such as Atterberg Limits, Compaction, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) were conducted on the soil + PPKS mix only and also on soil + PPKS + 3% Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) mix. The liquid limit (LL) and plasticity index (PI) values decreased steadily with increase in PPKS while the plastic limit (PL) value increased with up to 4% PPKS addition after which the values started decreasing. The shrinkage limit (SL) value increased with a peak value at 8% PPKS addition after which the values began to decrease. The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) results on PPKS addition increased from 16% to 19.5% while the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) decreased by 45.18% from 1.669g/m3 to 0.915g/m3 . Addition of PPKS decreased the Unsoaked CBR by 10.79% from 68.60 to 61.20% while the Soaked CBR increased by 74.12% from 18.05% to 69.75%. UCS values for the lateritic soil and PPKS for the uncured sample, at 7 days and 14 days had peak values of 85.03, 96.46 and 100.44 respectively. From the study, it can be concluded that the properties of the Lateritic soil improved when stabilized with Cement and pulverized palm kernel shell compared to when it was stabilized with pulverized palm kernel shell alon

MECHANICAL STRENGTH DETERMINATION OF CRUSHED STONE AGGREGATE FRACTION FOR ROAD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION (CASE STUDY: SELECTED QUARRIES IN WESTERN NIGERIA)

In this research work, the mechanical strength of crushed stone aggregate fractions for road pavement construction in Western Nigeria was assessed. Samples of crushed stone aggregates were collected from nine (9) representative quarries spread across the states in Western Nigeria.The physical and mechanical properties of the aggregates were evaluated. The results were then compared with the specifications in international standards (BS and ASTM Standards). All the aggregate samples met the required limit for Loose Density, Water Absorption, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) and Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) tests. Aggregates samples from Samchase, Kopek, CCECC and SaliwaYetidipe quarries have flakiness indices exceeding the permissible limit (29.5%, 25.7%, 27.9% and 34.5% respectively). Hi-Tech and Western quarries samples have elongation indices of 44.5% and 40.3% respectively which are higher than the permissible limit. The two samples that failed Aggregate Abrasion Value test (AAV) are Hi-Tech and Western quarries, having 30.8% and 30.4% respectively. These two aggregates samples have AAV less than 35% which means they are still good for pavement construction only if the appropriate guidelines are followed (since any aggregate with AAV more than 35% is deemed weak for pavement construction). The study concluded that aggregates from Julius Berger quarry have the highest mechanical strength

Performance Study of University of Ado Ekiti (UNAD) Transit Shuttle Buses

Traffic engineering uses engineering methods and techniques to achieve the safe and time efficient movement of people and goods on roadways. The safe and time efficient movement of people and goods is dependent on the transit system performance, which is directly connected to the traffic characteristics. The main parameters of performance of transport shuttles are traffic volume, speed, density and revenue; and all these are evaluated in this study. In the absence of effective planning and traffic management, current road infrastructure will not be able to cater for the future needs of the University. Students, staff and vehicle volumes have increased significantly in the last decade in the Institution, yet the performance of the transport shuttle have been dismal and unable to achieve its objectives. Findings of the study show that the morning peak period (8.00am to 9.00am) has 234 vehicles/hr, evening peak period (2.00pm to 3.00pm) has 284 vehicles/hr, while the offpeak period (11.00am to 12.00pm) has 156 vehicles/hr. The journey time from the Post Office bus stop to the University campus, measured as 34.01 minutes, was too long for the distance of 15.0km road which according to the Nigeria Highway Code should not be more than 18 minutes. The average stopping time was 6.55 minutes, average interval between arrivals of motorists was 16.40 seconds, the average queue length was 14.23 people, and the average waiting time at the bus-stop 4.17 minutes. These values were obtained using the queuing theory and shows much commuters time is lost on transit queues. The financial condition of the transit unit shows that amount generated is less than the amount expended by the transit operators. This means, in effect, that the shuttle bus operators are operating in deficit

Microstructural Analysis of Concrete Using Cow Bone Ash for Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) Suppression

Concrete pavements are prone to microstructural changes and deterioration when exposed to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). ASR results in strength reduction, cracking, spalling and other defects in the concrete if left unchecked. Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) such as Cow Bone Ash (CBA) however can be used to improve concrete performance, hence its use in this study. Concrete samples were prepared at replacement levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% of cement with Cow Bone Ash. The concrete samples were then subjected to petrographic and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis. Petrographic examination shows that the minimal and least amount of ASR gels and micro cracking were observed at 15% CBA replacement of cement in the concrete samples. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis shows that changes in the elemental composition of the concrete samples is related to the effect of CBA which enhances adhesion in the concrete. SEM analysis show that, in general, the change in microstructure in the concrete was mainly due to the change in the arrangement of the C-H-S compounds. The microstructure analysis indicates that CBA in concrete influences the densification of the concrete at the transition zone, resulting in a much lower porosity. This results in the concrete having a tightly bound layer that repels ingress of water and thereby inhibiting cracks and gel formation as water is a contributing factor to the ASR in concrete

Comparative Evaluation of the Engineering Properties of Asphaltic Concrete from Selected Asphalt Plants in Southwestern Nigeria for Road Construction

In this study, the engineering properties of asphaltic concrete from selected asphalt plants in Southwestern Nigeria for road construction were sampled for three months, analysed and compared with regulatory body specifications. The penetration test, Ductility test, Marshall Stability and flow tests results indicated good conformity to the regulatory specification by all the plants with JBN exhibiting highest range value while LSPWC has the least. Also, asphalt samples from all the plants passed the Ring ball and softening point test with Julius Berger Nigeria having highest value between 53.5-53.7 while SEQUOIA has the least with 50-50.2 when compared to standard value 47-56. For bitumen content tests with 5-8% Specification, ESPRO failed with 3.9-4.8, LSPWC show inconsistence result of 3.9-5.6, SEQUOIA had the highest between 6.4-7.0, while CCECC and JBN conform to specification. The density-void ratio and particle size specification were met by only JBN with major deviation recorded from LSPWC. The result indicated JBN is the only company that satisfy all the engineering properties specification while others exhibit inconsistency in aggregates proportion thereby making the asphalt concrete a possible cause for pavement failure in Southwest Nigeria

Strength analysis of concrete pavement deformation due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction that negatively affects concrete pavements strengths and integrity. ASR impedes concrete pavements' performance due to the formation of cracks and ultimate deformation if not properly controlled. Concrete pavements are gaining more relevance due to their ability to be constructed on soils with low bearing capacity and support high traffic loadings, thus increasing the need for studies on how ASR in the concrete pavements can be mitigated. This study employed compressive and flexural strength tests to determine the strength properties and deformation of concrete pavements due to ASR when partially replaced with CBA at varying percentages. Static structural modelling of the concrete as a multiphase material in which aggregates, cracks and gel formations are considered as embedded inclusions in the cement paste is then carried out. The results are then compared with relevant standards and findings of other researchers. The study's findings reveal that all the concrete cube samples passed the recommended compressive strength for rigid pavement, which range from 35 - 40 N/mm2 at 28th day. The concrete cube samples also passed the target strength of 48.25 N/mm2 obtained from the mix design. The effect of ASR resulted in lower compressive and flexural strengths observed at 180th and 240th days with lower CBA addition, while samples containing higher CBA contents had increasing compressive strength. The static structural modelling results reveal that the maximum deformation was obtained for the concrete cubes admixed with 0% CBA with 47.045 mm while the least deformation was obtained at 30% CBA replacement with deformation value of 5.542 mm on application of a 900 KN force. Therefore, the study posits that CBA addition will help reduce Portland Cement Concrete Pavement deformation due to ASR in relation to traffic loadings. Cite as: Adanikin A, Falade F, Olutaiwo A. Strength analysis of concrete pavement deformation due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR). Alg. J. Eng. Tech. 2020; 3: 020-027. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4400227 References Hajighasemali S, Ramezanianpour A, Kashefizadeh M. The effect of alkali–silica reaction on strength and ductility analyses of RC beams. Magazine of concrete research. 2014;66(15):751-760. Grimal E, Sellier A, Multon S, Le Pape Y, Bourdarot E. Concrete modelling for expertise of structures affected by alkali aggregate reaction. Cement and Concrete Research. 2010 ;40(4):502-507. Monette LJ, Gardner NJ, Grattan-Bellew PE. Residual strength of reinforced concrete beams damaged by alkali-silica reaction—Examination of damage rating index method. Materials Journal. 2002 ;99(1):42-50. Huaquan YA, Zhen LI, Meijuan RA, Xiaomei SH. Study on Influence of Aggregate Combination and Inhibition Material ofAlkali-silica Reaction in Fully-Graded Concrete. Materials Science. 2020;26(3):363-372. Malhotra VM, Mehta PK. High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete: materials, mixture proportioning, properties, construction practice, and case histories. Supplementary Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development, Incorporated. Ottawa Canada, 2002: 101p. Falade F, Ikponmwosa E, and Fapohunda C. Potential of Pulverized Bone as a Pozzolanic material. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research. 2012; 3(7): 1-6. Evon, D. Is This ‘Goliath Skeleton’ Real? Retrieved from: https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/is-this-goliath-skeleton-real/; (2018). BS 1881-116. Testing concrete. Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes. 1983. ASTM, C78M. Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. 2018. Ahmed T, Burley E, Rigden S, Abu-Tair AI. The effect of alkali reactivity on the mechanical properties of concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2003;17(2):123-144. Smaoui N, Bérubé MA, Fournier B, Bissonnette B, Durand B. Effects of alkali addition on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Cement and concrete research. 2005;35(2):203-12. Ankit K. Kisku N. Effect of silica fume and fly ash as partial replacement of cement on strength of concrete. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2016;5(10), 18618 – 18624. Subbaramaiah G, Sudarsana HR, Vaishali GG. Effect of addition and partial replacement of cement by wood waste ash on strength properties of structural grade concrete. International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology. 2015; 2(9): 736-743 Olutaiwo AO, Yekini OS, Ezegbunem II. Utilizing Cow Bone Ash (CBA) as partial replacement for cement in highway rigid pavement construction. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering. 2018; 5(2): 13-19. Adanikin A, Falade F, Olutaiwo AO, Faleye ET. Ajayi AJ. Investigation of the effect of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) on Properties of Concrete Pavement Admixed with Cow Bone Ash (CBA) by Electrical Resistivity Method. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2019, 640(1): 1-9 Kadyali LR. Lal NB. Principles and practices of highway engineering including expressways and airport engineering. (Khanna Publishers, New Delhi). 2014. Marzouk H. Langdon S. The effect of alkali aggregate reactivity on the mechanical properties of high and normal strength concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2003;25: 549–556. Giaccio G, Zerbino R, Ponce JM, Batic OR. Mechanical behavior of concretes damaged by alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research. 2008;38(7):993-1004

Strength Analysis of Concrete Pavement Deformation Due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction that negatively affects concrete pavements strengths and integrity. ASR impedes concrete pavements' performance due to the formation of cracks and ultimate deformation if not properly controlled. Concrete pavements are gaining more relevance due to their ability to be constructed on soils with low bearing capacity and support high traffic loadings, thus increasing the need for studies on how ASR in the concrete pavements can be mitigated. This study employed compressive and flexural strength tests to determine the strength properties and deformation of concrete pavements due to ASR when partially replaced with CBA at varying percentages. Static structural modelling of the concrete as a multiphase material in which aggregates, cracks and gel formations are considered as embedded inclusions in the cement paste is then carried out. The results are then compared with relevant standards and findings of other researchers. The study's findings reveal that all the concrete cube samples passed the recommended compressive strength for rigid pavement, which range from 35 - 40 N/mm2 at 28th day. The concrete cube samples also passed the target strength of 48.25 N/mm2 obtained from the mix design. The effect of ASR resulted in lower compressive and flexural strengths observed at 180th and 240th days with lower CBA addition, while samples containing higher CBA contents had increasing compressive strength. The static structural modelling results reveal that the maximum deformation was obtained for the concrete cubes admixed with 0% CBA with 47.045 mm while the least deformation was obtained at 30% CBA replacement with deformation value of 5.542 mm on application of a 900 KN force. Therefore, the study posits that CBA addition will help reduce Portland Cement Concrete Pavement deformation due to ASR in relation to traffic loadings. Cite as: Adanikin A, Falade F, Olutaiwo A. Strength analysis of concrete pavement deformation due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR). Alg. J. Eng. Tech. 2020; 3: 020-027. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4400227 References Hajighasemali S, Ramezanianpour A, Kashefizadeh M. The effect of alkali–silica reaction on strength and ductility analyses of RC beams. Magazine of concrete research. 2014;66(15):751-760. Grimal E, Sellier A, Multon S, Le Pape Y, Bourdarot E. Concrete modelling for expertise of structures affected by alkali aggregate reaction. Cement and Concrete Research. 2010 ;40(4):502-507. Monette LJ, Gardner NJ, Grattan-Bellew PE. Residual strength of reinforced concrete beams damaged by alkali-silica reaction—Examination of damage rating index method. Materials Journal. 2002 ;99(1):42-50. Huaquan YA, Zhen LI, Meijuan RA, Xiaomei SH. Study on Influence of Aggregate Combination and Inhibition Material ofAlkali-silica Reaction in Fully-Graded Concrete. Materials Science. 2020;26(3):363-372. Malhotra VM, Mehta PK. High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete: materials, mixture proportioning, properties, construction practice, and case histories. Supplementary Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development, Incorporated. Ottawa Canada, 2002: 101p. Falade F, Ikponmwosa E, and Fapohunda C. Potential of Pulverized Bone as a Pozzolanic material. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research. 2012; 3(7): 1-6. Evon, D. Is This ‘Goliath Skeleton' Real? Retrieved from: https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/is-this-goliath-skeleton-real/; (2018). BS 1881-116. Testing concrete. Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes. 1983. ASTM, C78M. Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. 2018. Ahmed T, Burley E, Rigden S, Abu-Tair AI. The effect of alkali reactivity on the mechanical properties of concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2003;17(2):123-144. Smaoui N, Bérubé MA, Fournier B, Bissonnette B, Durand B. Effects of alkali addition on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Cement and concrete research. 2005;35(2):203-12. Ankit K. Kisku N. Effect of silica fume and fly ash as partial replacement of cement on strength of concrete. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2016;5(10), 18618 – 18624. Subbaramaiah G, Sudarsana HR, Vaishali GG. Effect of addition and partial replacement of cement by wood waste ash on strength properties of structural grade concrete. International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology. 2015; 2(9): 736-743 Olutaiwo AO, Yekini OS, Ezegbunem II. Utilizing Cow Bone Ash (CBA) as partial replacement for cement in highway rigid pavement construction. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering. 2018; 5(2): 13-19. Adanikin A, Falade F, Olutaiwo AO, Faleye ET. Ajayi AJ. Investigation of the effect of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) on Properties of Concrete Pavement Admixed with Cow Bone Ash (CBA) by Electrical Resistivity Method. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2019, 640(1): 1-9 Kadyali LR. Lal NB. Principles and practices of highway engineering including expressways and airport engineering. (Khanna Publishers, New Delhi). 2014. Marzouk H. Langdon S. The effect of alkali aggregate reactivity on the mechanical properties of high and normal strength concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2003;25: 549–556. Giaccio G, Zerbino R, Ponce JM, Batic OR. Mechanical behavior of concretes damaged by alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research. 2008;38(7):993-1004

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) Comparison of Pavements (Flexible, Rigid and Rigid-admixed with Cow Bone ASH)

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) acts as a decision support tool in economic evaluation of cost (agency and user) during pavement type selection, maintenance and rehabilitation strategy. The Life cycle cost analysis was done using the Present worth of Cost method. Technical Recommendations for Highway (TRH) 12 (pavement rehabilitation investigation and design) analysis was used for calculating the agency cost which entailed the initial rehabilitation, maintenance, future and salvage cost. The LCCA analysis period for this study was taken as 40 years as the analysis period have to be sufficiently long to reflect long-term cost differences associated with reasonable design strategies. The result of the study shows that the present worth cost for the varying Pavement presents the options available for decision making. The result revealed that the initial cost of Rigid pavement is the highest followed by the initial cost of Rigid pavement with 15% CBA while flexible Pavement has the lowest initial cost. However, considering the result showing the present worth cost for the varying pavement types present worth cost of flexible pavement is the highest followed by Rigid pavement and Rigid pavement with 15% CBA has the lowest life cycle cost. The study recommended that Rigid pavement with 15% CBA should be considered because it gives the lowest life cycle cost and the initial cost is relatively low