The Effects and Impacts of Quarrying on Forest Land: the Case of Gami Quarries, Mwache Forest, Kwale County, Kenya

This paper highlights the effects and impacts of quarrying on Forest Land, with Mwache Forest, located in the Kwale County, whose land use is defined as conservation –as the study case. Despite the defined land-use, Gami Quarries Ltd had been given the rights of exploiting the rock out-crop in the forest to make ballast –a raw material needed in the construction industry. Ballast processing operations were initiated through blasting the rock structure using explosives inserted onto holes drilled on the rock, disseminating it into boulders that were sized into smaller rocks that were transported for processing into ballast. The explosions resulted into the generation of wave energy that weakened the rock formation and, damaged the existing neighbouring infrastructure; it produced dust and higher levels of noise. Transport of the rock material for processing into ballast, resulted in the emission of fugitive dust due to tracking on the unpaved road. This was in addition to the emission of the oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, carbon monoxide, suspended particle matter (SPM) and, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the poorly maintained diesel engine powered tracks. The significance of air pollution from the ballast-making operational processes was low, bearing the wind regime, which scattered and diluted the pollutants. Run-off from the quarry spoils however introduced undesirable elements in water; while lack of sanitation on-site was recipe for transmission of water borne disease. Quarrying for ballast exposed the groundwater aquifer, making it vulnerable to contamination; it at the same time led to the potential of altering the existing drainage characteristics, interfering with stream flow and aquifer recharge. Quarrying created Bad Lands, exposed the bed rock to erosion and reduced the moisture content usually experienced in forested land with impact on local ecology, arising from the destruction of the habitat. The effects of enhanced noise from the blasting operations was traced into hearing loss among the workers; the noise also disturbed wildlife and grazing animals. Fire-outbreaks were also potential due to the explosives use, it could also result from the domestic activities of the workers. Fire outbreak on dry forest could lead to severe and significant effects, including the loss of life. On occupational health and safety matters, the workers have had to do with the consequences of potential exposure to dust, potential injuries from flying blasted rock debri, from the impacts of water borne and, water related diseases and, high levels of noise. To minimize the identified effects and impacts, operating rules had been given. These offered adequate protection. However, it was recognized that the rules and procedures ought to be engraved into an Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan in order to promote sustainability of the actions. This had not been done. Key words: quarrying, dust, noise, pollution, habitat destruction, water borne and water related diseases, cancer, operating rules and procedure

Effects Associated with Processing Ballast and Waste Oil at Port Reitz, Mombasa-Kenya

This study was carried out in response to a complaint regarding environmental pollution, arising from the processing of ballast water and waste oil on the premises of the landlord on Plot No. LR 1192/VI/MN, Port Reitz, Mombasa. The plot is designated commercial for purposes of land use purposes, and its tenant had been undertaking a ballast water/oil sludge scheming process to obtain fuel oil, which he sold to industrialists. This had resulted in damage to the environment as the facility incorporated no safeguard to address oil spills and no drainage system to contain waste discharges from the process. The study was undertaken to establish the level of environmental damage, propose rehabilitation costs, and offer recommendations for remedial measures. The study was realised through desk study, field visits, digging and sampling of soils for analysis. The results showed that between 60-70% of the soil in the premise was contaminated with oil, penetrating at least one meter deep. Effect from the oil contamination manifested in the failure of the soils to support growth of new vegetation, while existing tree plants were withered. The impact from this was the loss of aesthetic beauty of the property, reducing its amenity value. Percolation of oil underground in porous rock formation has potential to contaminate groundwater, threating the quality status of this resource for domestic purposes. The process activities were also of health concern since no safeguards had been provided to protect the workers from direct contact the oil. Hydrocarbon oils when exposed to hot climatic conditions like those prevalent in Mombasa, which provide high solar radiation have the potential to breakdown, emitting some toxic and potentially carcinogenic substances. The facility therefore exposed the workers to the dangers of contracting cancer through inhalation of the emissions with potential long term health consequences. Finally, the massive physical environmental damage on the premises means rehabilitation costs could be high. Estimates indicated that as much as US$100,000 would be required to restore the premises to a condition that would allow natural regeneration. The findings also indicate that the activity being undertaken, is not the best land-use for the area. It is consequently recommended that if the activity must continue, then it must be conducted according to established guidelines. Otherwise, it is ideal that it is ceased, and rehabilitation works, commenced. It is also observed that important potential effects were not included in this research. Ballast water is known to introduce invasive species. Efforts therefore need to be undertaken to determine the presence such species in the neighbourhood before they attain pest proportions. Keywords: Ballast water, MARPOL, oil sludge; air, soil and groundwater contamination, environmental damage, health effects, toxic substances carcinogenic products.

Dancing to the Tune of Opportunities –Human Settlements Aligned to Share the Jackpot of Kenya’s Coastal Tourism Benefits Spoil the Broth

This paper highlights how human settlements aligned themselves to share the benefits to arise from coastal tourism development in the Kenya coast, but have come to bedevil the industry through poor management of domestic waste. The study area comprised of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale, which are two important tourist destinations in the country. It attempted to establish population numbers in these habitations, the waste loads generated, and how it was managed. The study was accomplished through field visits, library research and application of the World Health Organization (WHO 1989) rapid assessment methods for land, air and water pollution. The relevant data for assessment was obtained from records of population census, bed nights, occupancy, and the waste disposal methods in use. The study revealed that human settlements aligned themselves in clusters inland, reflecting the clusters of the beach hotels dotting the shore line of the Indian Ocean. Large volumes of domestic waste were being generated in both the human settlements and in the hotels. Management of the waste in the settlements was largely on-site and mixed, through the use of both pit latrines and septic-tank/soakage pit systems in the human settlements, and only through septic-tank/soakage pits in the hotel establishments. None of the settlements had wastewater treatment facilities. Only 5 beach hotels had wastewater treatment plants. While the settlements positioned themselves to benefit from the tourism industry, tapping in business and employment opportunities, the arrangement has seemed to spoil the broth as the settlements came to be the main source domestic waste affecting environmental quality and undermining tourism growth and sustainability. Also, through the large number of visitors, during the peak tourist periods, the beach hotels themselves have come contribute to large waste generation. On-site sanitation, it is concluded, is not appropriate for managing domestic waste in coastal areas dependent on good quality environmental to flourish the tourism economic sector. Tourism thrives in areas where the environment is aesthetically appealing; domestic waste undermine. Consequently, it is recommended that innovative approaches are pursued for domestic waste management in order to flourish and sustain the industry. Keywords: Human waste, human settlements, tourism, on-site sanitation, contamination, aesthetic value, water quality, sustainability

On-Site Sanitation and Its Effects on the Groundwater Resources of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale, Kenya

This paper has analyzed the effects of on-site sanitation systems on groundwater and the impact this has to public health in the human settlements and tourist establishments of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale areas –two, very important tourist destinations in the Kenya coast. The pit latrine and septic-tank/soakage pit are the two main systems used for containing human waste in the settlements. These two on-site sanitation systems constitute the main source of potential contamination to groundwater and its consequences in the two areas. Hence, the boreholes and wells in the two study areas were located on a map using a GPS to serve as the sampling points. Water from these sources was analyzed for nutrient and feacal contamination in the laboratory. The nutrient contamination was established through the levels of total ammonia, nitrates/nitrites, and phosphates. These were determined using calorimetric methods; while the 5-tube, 3- dilution, Most Probable Number (MPN) technique was used for the evaluation of the levels of total Coliforms and Escherichia Coli (E-coli) parameters. The study was designed with a strategy that captured the effects and impacts of the contaminants with the varying tourist seasons and rainfall pattern. Results of the study revealed that the level of nutrient and micro-bacteria contamination varied with location, distance, tourist seasons and rainfall pattern relative to the contaminating sources. Water sources located within the human settlements and beach hotels –and within short distances to the contaminating sources exhibited elevated levels of nutrients and micro-bacteria; water sources located down-stream the human settlements revealed even higher contamination levels, indicating more input of nutrients and micro-bacteria probably through underground flow and seepage into the water aquifers –likely through cracks in the coral rock formation characteristic of the two study areas. The results of the study lead to the conclusion that on-site sanitation systems, though sanctioned for human waste disposal, may not be suitable in areas dominated by coral geology basement, particularly so when stringent observance of regulations and standard required in the construction of the waste disposal systems are not adhered to. Out of the conclusion, it is recommended that a shift towards innovative approaches in human waste management need to be advanced and pursued as a matter of policy in environmental management. Keywords: On-site sanitation, water contamination, nutrients, micro-bacteria, Total coliform, E. coli

On-Site Sanitation and Its Effects on the Recreational Waters of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale –Kenya

This paper presents the effect of on-site sanitation systems on the recreational waters of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale tourist destinations along the Kenya Coast to establish the level of contamination in these lagoon waters frequented by tourists for swimming, diving and snorkeling. Water oozing out along the beaches near hotels or a clusters of hotels and that of lagoons in front of the beach hotels were sampled for laboratory examination to determine the levels of contamination by nutrients and micro-bacteria. Nitrites and E. coli –indicators of recent contamination by human wastes were of major interest. The sampling and analysis spanned the whole year to capture the four tourist seasons and the wet and dry periods of the year. The results of analysis established the in-effectiveness of the on-site sanitation systems in containing human waste. Topology and rock formation promoted transportation of contaminants downstream for measurable levels of nutrients and E.Coli to be detected in the lagoon waters. Nutrients and bacteria levels were higher in the lagoons in the wet periods than during dry weather. This was linked to of diffuse pollution from surface run-off, leachates from dumpsite, and discharges of contaminated water into the lagoons. Specifically for Diani-Chale, the levels of contamination were observed to be in sync with the peak tourist season, where the higher levels could be explained on account of the large number of people (tourist  plus  local people), which increased significantly as the number of local people increased to cash in on the opportunities the industry offered during this period only to decline to low contamination levels during the low-tourist season when the tourists return to their home countries and the local people move to their rural homes for farming activities. Variation of contaminant levels as a pattern due to migration of the people was not observed in the NBS study area on account the area being more urbanized, people depend on other sectors for their socio-economic activities. Overall, the contamination levels in the two study areas are generally still low. However, with increasing urbanization and investments in the tourism industry, the problem may grow to unacceptable levels and action needs to be taken to address it as an emerging problem. Keywords: Lagoon waters, on-water activities, on-site sanitation, human waste management, contamination, nutrients, micro-bacteria, E. col

Markets and Gender Interaction in Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: A Case of the Coastal Kenya Sedentary Farm Households’ Experiences

Climate change is a global concern which manifests on a multilevel perspective and sometimes distinct or nested within some geographical boundaries. At the sedentary farm household systems climate change is real and continues to have impacts across different agro-ecological zones. A participatory rapid appraisal survey aimed at investigating the role of markets and gender participation in climate change adaptation and mitigation was conducted using key-informant interviews and gender-based group discussions in Kwale County of the coastal lowlands of Kenya. Results indicated that there has been an enormous and an elicited rapid reduction of vegetation cover by 50% in the last ten years, a 45-50% decline in cattle and 30% sheep and goat populations. The loss in vegetation cover and diversity, translated to a rapid increase in soil erosion mainly from wind and running water. Critical to farm sedentary households was the shift in the seasonal calendar characterized by erratic nature of rains in intensity and spatial distribution. Markets played a crucial role in factor-product mobility where some of the factors and/or products were drivers for technology marketing and adoption as a way of adapting to and mitigating climate change. Market forces were also instrumental in increasing the demand for energy thereby leading to increased vegetation harvesting for fuel wood and charcoal. Compared to the last 15 to 20 years, markets were major sources cereal-based food resources by over 80% as demonstrated by the movement of such resources from urban markets to the rural farm households other than the reverse. Markets also enhanced technology transfer and adoption by over 30% among households. There were however radical shifts in gender roles within households such as men sourcing for water in the event of severe or prolonged drought, women participation in the construction sector and increased social networks that with increased women participation in business. Ethnic based frameworks for gender roles were generally on decline following collapsing of cultural pillars which in the past dictated gender roles. The paper further outlines and suggests critical impacts of climate change across some identified vulnerable systems and makes policy recommendations to deal with the issues raised. Keywords: Climate change, markets, gender, sedentary farm households, adaptation and mitigatio

Resettling Displaced People in a Coastal Zone Mining Project: Evaluating the Agricultural and Land use Potential of the Proposed Resettlement site –A Case of Titanium Mining in Kenya

Preparations to mine titanium in Maumba and Noma areas of Msambweni District, Kwale County are in progress, and farmers affected by the project are to be resettled in another area. The displaced people have made it a condition that they should be settled in area where their farming activities are enhanced; and that adequate land is availed for social infrastructure. The identified site for resettlement site lies between latitudes 40 28’ and 40 32’ South, and between longitudes 390 16’ and 390 20’ East, and extends from Kiruku and Mwangwei to Kigombero. It receives an annual rainfall of 1,200-1,400 mm and is therefore suitable for rain-fed agriculture. About 75% of the land is low-lying and 50% of this is prone to flooding. Both communities are worried about the land allocation process, fearing about the quality and size of the land to be allocated to each, and the likely disintegration of existing socio-cultural structures. As good practise in integrated coastal zone management, the proposed resettlement site was evaluated to assess its suitability for crop and livestock production to sustain the livelihoods of the communities. The results of the evaluation show evidence of soil; the nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and organic carbon contents in the soils were generally low. To reverse the situation, inorganic and organic fertilizers should be used for crop and forage production to encourage build up of nutrient and organic matter levels in the soil. Drainage canals should be reconstructed to control flooding. Due to the low lying topography of the resettlement site, the portion on raised ground should be set aside for the homesteads. And other social infrastructure as demanded is be availed so that the communities continue with their life, despite the displacement. Key words: Titanium Mining, Displacement of Communities, Resettlemen

Urbanization and Groundwater Pollution in Mombasa-Kenya: Do we have to Transfer the Problem due to Construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass

We show how a bridge and good road network opened up the Mombasa County to rapid urbanization and growth of human settlements beyond the ability of Local Government to provide the infrastructure for human waste management, leading to pollution of groundwater aquifers and effects in public health. We caution that the same would happen in the Kwale County upon construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass linking it to Mombasa. Up to 1979, the population distribution in the Mombasa County was restricted by difficulties of access, particularly at its potential district of Kisauni, which though offering plenty of land for housing development, was not overpopulated due to difficult to access. However, upon construction of the Nyali Bridge the early 1980s, the population dynamics shifted, making Kisauni the most populated area. It remains so and this population uses on-site sanitation systems for human waste management. This has had impact on groundwater aquifers through microbial pollution, rendering otherwise chemically suitable water unsuitable on this account without treatment. Construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass to link Mombasa with the south coast will open the Kwale County to rapid urbanization, replicating the water pollution problem experienced in the Mombasa County, particularly in the locations found along its coastal belt. In this study technical measures, zoning and declaration of areas for conservation of groundwater aquifers have been proposed to forestall the problem in the newly to urbanize area. Key words: Ease of access, on-site sanitation, groundwater pollution, water borne diseases, effects on public healt

Environmental Implications of the Proposed Materials Handling and Ship-Loading Facility for the Export of Titanium at the Port of Mombasa, Kenya

A proposal has been made by Tiomin, Kenya to construct a materials handling and ship loading facility at Likoni in the vicinity of the port of Mombasa, Kenya. The proposed ship-loading site is a “brown-fields site”, which has been exposed to industrial and shipping activities for many years. Mangroves form the only significant marine habitat in the bay and show stress from previous oil spills. This study evaluates if implementation of the project, which includes construction of a warehouse and a jetty, could significantly compound the pollution problem. To achieve this, the project document, describing the construction and operational activities was obtained and a specialist study to describe the physical and biological environment, the currents dynamics for the area all year round were undertaken to predict the risk of accidents related to bad weather, indicating how the currents may transport oil (in the case of oil spill) to affect the mangrove habitat. The methods used to accomplish this study included a desk-top study for published information on the area, field visits to observe and describe the environment, and use made of the method for impact identification and evaluation developed by the Coastal and Environment Services, South Africa. Potential impacts revealed by the study included changes to water quality arising from sediment loading into the marine environment due to excavation activities, changes to benthic environment due to propeller wash during manoeuvring/docking, tank cleaning etc, effects on the water column from spillage the export minerals, potential impacts from invasive species from ballast water discharges, etc. Construction impacts were evaluated to be severe but of short-term duration. Such impacts are judged to be insignificant. On the other hand, operation impacts will be routine and may have moderate to significant impacts, if mitigation measures are not put in place and sustained. On mitigation, most of these impacts reduce to low impact and significance. However, the discharge of ballast water should not be allowed. Having established that most impacts were insignificant, it was concluded that implementation of the project would not significantly compound the existing environment condition in the harbour, and as such, implementation of the project was recommended