Differential costs of reproduction in females and hermaphrodites in a gynodioecious plant

Background and Aims Plants exhibit a variety of reproductive systems where unisexual (females or males) morphs coexist with hermaphrodites. The maintenance of dimorphic and polymorphic reproductive systems may be problematic. For example, to coexist with hermaphrodites the females of gynodioecious species have to compensate for the lack of male function. In our study species, Geranium sylvaticum, a perennial gynodioecious herb, the relative seed fitness advantage of females varies significantly between years within populations as well as among populations. Differences in reproductive investment between females and hermaphrodites may lead to differences in future survival, growth and reproductive success, i.e. to differential costs of reproduction. Since females of this species produce more seeds, higher costs of reproduction in females than in hermaphrodites were expected. Due to the higher costs of reproduction, the yearly variation in reproductive output of females might be more pronounced than that of hermaphrodites. Methods Using supplemental hand-pollination of females and hermaphrodites of G. sylvaticum we examined if increased reproductive output leads to differential costs of reproduction in terms of survival, probability of flowering, and seed production in the following year. Key Results Experimentally increased reproductive output had differential effects on the reproduction of females and hermaphrodites. In hermaphrodites, the probability of flowering decreased significantly in the following year, whereas in females the costs were expressed in terms of decreased future seed production. Conclusions When combining the probability of flowering and seed production per plant to estimate the multiplicative change in fitness, female plants showed a 56 % and hermaphrodites showed a 39 % decrease in fitness due to experimentally increased reproduction. Therefore, in total, female plants seem to be more sensitive to the cost of reproduction in terms of seed fitness than hermaphrodite

The role of inbreeding and outbreeding in herbivore resistance and tolerance in Vincetoxicum hirundinaria

Background and Aims Inbreeding via self-fertilization may have negative effects on plant fitness (i.e. inbreeding depression). Outbreeding, or cross-fertilization between genetically dissimilar parental plants, may also disrupt local adaptation or allelic co-adaptation in the offspring and again lead to reduced plant fitness (i.e. outbreeding depression). Inbreeding and outbreeding may also increase plant vulnerability to natural enemies by altering plant quality or defence. The effects of inbreeding and outbreeding on plant size and response to herbivory in the perennial herb, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, were investigated. Methods Greenhouse experiments were conducted using inbred and outbred (within- and between-population) offspring of 20 maternal plants from four different populations, quantifying plant germination, size, resistance against the specialist folivore, Abrostola asclepiadis, and tolerance of simulated defoliation. Key Results Selfed plants were smaller and more susceptible to damage by A. asclepiadis than outcrossed plants. However, herbivore biomass on selfed and outcrossed plants did not differ. The effects of inbreeding on plant performance and resistance did not differ among plant populations or families, and no inbreeding depression at all was found in tolerance of defoliation. Between-population outcrossing had no effect on plant performance or resistance against A. asclepiadis, indicating a lack of outbreeding depression. Conclusions Since inbreeding depression negatively affects plant size and herbivore resistance, inbreeding may modify the evolution of the interaction between V. hirundinaria and its specialist folivore. The results further suggest that herbivory may contribute to the maintenance of a mixed mating system of the host plants by selecting for outcrossing and reduced susceptibility to herbivore attack, and thus add to the growing body of evidence on the effects of inbreeding on the mating system evolution of the host plants and the dynamics of plant-herbivore interaction

Plant Chemistry and Local Adaptation of a Specialized Folivore

Local adaptation is central for creating and maintaining spatial variation in plant-herbivore interactions. Short-lived insect herbivores feeding on long-lived plants are likely to adapt to their local host plants, because of their short generation time, poor dispersal, and geographically varying selection due to variation in plant defences. In a reciprocal feeding trial, we investigated the impact of geographic variation in plant secondary chemistry of a long-lived plant, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, on among-population variation in local adaptation of a specialist leaf-feeding herbivore, Abrostola asclepiadis. The occurrence and degree of local adaptation varied among populations. This variation correlated with qualitative and quantitative differences in plant chemistry among the plant populations. These findings provide insights into the mechanisms driving variation in local adaptation in this specialized plant-herbivore interaction

Strong gene flow explains lack of mating system variation in the perennial herb, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, in a fragmented landscape

Fragmented landscapes may have implications for the genetic structure of populations and for the microevolution of plant species. In particular, landscape fragmentation and/or population isolation might affect the evolution of plant mating systems. Here, we study the consequences of landscape fragmentation on the genetic structure of populations of a perennial herb, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria with a mixed mating system. Our study area, the south-western Finnish archipelago, was formed after the glacial ice sheet started to retreat 12 000 years ago. Due to the isostatic land uplift following the glacial retreat, suitable habitats have been formed gradually, and as a consequence, populations of V. hirundinaria differ in age, size and their degree of isolation in the area. We hypothesized that a mixed-mating system has been selected for in these populations due to the advantage of self-fertilization in newly colonized areas and the advantage of outcrossing in adaptation to heterogeneous environments. To test this hypothesis, we collected seeds of open-pollinated flowers from 13 V. hirundinaria populations differing in size, age and isolation, and used 15 microsatellite markers to perform progeny-array analysis to estimate population-level outcrossing rates, population genetic indices and population structure. We found that V. hirundinaria is almost completely outcrossing in the study area with no signs of past self-fertilization and/or mating among relatives. The overall low inbreeding coefficients indicate that even in small populations mating among relatives is rare. High allelic richness of both maternal and offspring genotypes as well as limited genetic differentiation among the studied populations indicate strong gene flow among them. Our findings suggest that V. hirundinaria has successful seed and pollen dispersal among populations that has allowed colonization of new habitats in this fragmented landscape and led to a genetically well-mixed group of populations at the scale of the study

Liiketoimintasuunnitelma visuaalisen markkinoinnin palveluille : Business plan for visual marketing services

Opinnäytetyön tarkoitus oli tutustua teoriassa yrityksen perustamiseen liittyviin peruskysymyksiin sekä lisäksi laatia liiketoimintasuunnitelma perustettavalle visuaalisen markkinoinnin palveluja tarjoavalle yritykselle. Opinnäytetyön teoreettinen viitekehys on jaettu kahteen päälukuun; yrittäjyyteen sekä liiketoimintasuunnitelmaan yrityksen perustana. Ensimmäisen pääluvun sisällä käsiteltiin yrittäjäksi ryhtymiseen sekä yrittäjänä toimimiseen liittyviä asioita kuten yritysmuotoja, kannattavuutta ja rahoitusta. Lisäksi käsiteltiin visuaalista markkinointia osana markkinointiviestintää sekä sen merkitystä kannattavuuden parantamisessa. Toisen pääluvun sisällä käsiteltiin mm. liiketoimintasuunnitelman periaatetta ja merkitystä, yrityksen strategiaa ja liikeideaa, markkinointia, asiakashankintaa ja hinnoittelua. Opinnäytetyön toinen osa laadittiin case- eli tapaustutkimuksena, jossa laadittiin liiketoimintasuunnitelma perustettavalle visuaalisen markkinoinnin palveluja tarjoavalle yritykselle. Liiketoimintasuunnitelman tarkoituksena oli tarkastella kannattaisiko kyseisen yrityksen perustaminen ja mitä sen perustamiseen vaadittaisiin. Liiketoiminta-suunnitelmassa esitettiin niin liikeidea, potentiaaliset asiakkaat ja kilpailijat kuin mahdolliset liiketoimintaan liittyvät riskit. Lopputuloksena saatiin valmis liiketoiminta-suunnitelma perustamis- ja kustannuslaskelmineen, jota voidaan käyttää pohjana myöhemmin perustettavalle yritykselle. Opinnäytetyö laadittiin siten, että se voi toimia oppaana myös muille yrityksen perustamista harkitseville.  Purpose of this thesis was to study in theory what needs to be considered when set-ting up a business and also to draw up a business plan for a new enterprise that is going to offer services in visual marketing. The theoretical framework is divided into two main sections; entrepreneurship and the business plan as an enterprise’s road map. The first main chapter dealt with issues of how to become and work as an entrepreneur. These included different types of businesses, profitability and funding. The second main chapter dealt with the principles and importance of the business plan, business strategy and idea, marketing, customer acquisition and pricing. The second part of the thesis was a case study in order to draw up a business plan for a new start-up company which is going to offer services in visual marketing. The purpose of this business plan was to review what is required to set-up the company and would the business be lucrative. The business plan drawn included business idea, potential customers and competitors and also potential business risks. The end result was a complete business plan with cost estimates which can be used later as a basis for founding the company. The thesis was prepared in such a way that it can serve as a guide to others who are considering starting a business as well

Differential costs of reproduction in females and hermaphrodites in a gynodioecious plant

ISSN:1095-8290ISSN:0305-736

Modification of competition between two grass species by a hemiparasitic plant and simulated grazing

V2008o

Ecological Context of Breeding System Variation: Sex, Size and Pollination in a (Predominantly) Gynodioecious Shrub

† Background and Aims Species that exhibit among-population variation in breeding system are particularly suitable to study the importance of the ecological context for the stability and evolution of gender polymorphism. Geographical variation in breeding system and sex ratio of Daphne laureola (Thymelaeaceae) was examined and their association with environmental conditions, plant and floral display sizes, and pollination environment in a broad geographic scale was analysed. † Methods The proportion of female and hermaphrodite individuals in 38 populations within the Iberian Peninsula was scored. Average local temperature and precipitation from these sites were obtained from interpolation models based on 30 years of data. Pollination success was estimated as stigmatic pollen loads, pollen tubes per ovule and the proportion of unfertilized flowers per individual in a sub-set of hermaphroditic and gynodioecious populations. † Key Results Daphne laureola is predominantly gynodioecious, but hermaphroditic populations were found in northeastern and southwestern regions, characterized by higher temperatures and lower annual precipitation. In the gynodioecious populations, female plants were larger and bore more flowers than hermaphrodites. However, due to their lower pollination success, females did not consistently produce more seeds than hermaphrodites, which tends to negate a seed production advantage in D. laureola females. In the northeastern hermaphroditic popu- lations, plants were smaller and produced 9 – 13 times fewer flowers than in the other Iberian regions, and thus pre- sumably had a lower level of geitonogamous self-fertilization. However, in a few southern populations hermaphroditism was not associated with small plant size and low flower production. † Conclusions The findings highlight that different mechanisms, including abiotic conditions and pollinator service, may account for breeding system variation within a species’ distribution range and also suggest that geitonogamy may affect plant breeding system evolutionPeer reviewe

Strong gene flow explains lack of mating system variation in the perennial herb, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, in a fragmented landscape

Fragmented landscapes may have implications for the genetic structure of populations and for the microevolution of plant species. In particular, landscape fragmentation and/or population isolation might affect the evolution of plant mating systems. Here, we study the consequences of landscape fragmentation on the genetic structure of populations of a perennial herb, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria with a mixed mating system. Our study area, the south-western Finnish archipelago, was formed after the glacial ice sheet started to retreat 12 000 years ago. Due to the isostatic land uplift following the glacial retreat, suitable habitats have been formed gradually, and as a consequence, populations of V. hirundinaria differ in age, size and their degree of isolation in the area. We hypothesized that a mixed-mating system has been selected for in these populations due to the advantage of self-fertilization in newly colonized areas and the advantage of outcrossing in adaptation to heterogeneous environments. To test this hypothesis, we collected seeds of open-pollinated flowers from 13 V. hirundinaria populations differing in size, age and isolation, and used 15 microsatellite markers to perform progeny-array analysis to estimate population-level outcrossing rates, population genetic indices and population structure. We found that V. hirundinaria is almost completely outcrossing in the study area with no signs of past self-fertilization and/or mating among relatives. The overall low inbreeding coefficients indicate that even in small populations mating among relatives is rare. High allelic richness of both maternal and offspring genotypes as well as limited genetic differentiation among the studied populations indicate strong gene flow among them. Our findings suggest that V. hirundinaria has successful seed and pollen dispersal among populations that has allowed colonization of new habitats in this fragmented landscape and led to a genetically well-mixed group of populations at the scale of the study

Data from: Preference for outbred host plants and positive effects of inbreeding on egg survival in a specialist herbivore

Inbreeding can profoundly affect the interactions of plants with herbivores as well as with the natural enemies of the herbivores. We studied how plant inbreeding affects herbivore oviposition preference, and whether inbreeding of both plants and herbivores alters the probability of predation or parasitism of herbivore eggs. In a laboratory preference test with the specialist herbivore moth Abrostola asclepiadis and inbred and outbred Vincetoxicum hirundinaria plants, we discovered that herbivores preferred to oviposit on outbred plants. A field experiment with inbred and outbred plants that bore inbred or outbred herbivore eggs revealed that the eggs of the outbred herbivores were more likely to be lost by predation, parasitism or plant hypersensitive responses than inbred eggs. This difference did not lead to differences in the realized fecundity as the number of hatched larvae did not differ between inbred and outbred herbivores. Thus, the strength of inbreeding depression in herbivores decreases when their natural enemies are involved. Plant inbreeding did not alter the attraction of natural enemies of the eggs. We conclude that inbreeding can significantly alter the interactions of plants and herbivores at different life-history stages, and that some of these alterations are mediated by the natural enemies of the herbivores