Organic Farming in Bangladesh: To Pursue or not to Pursue? An Exploratory Study Based on Consumer Perception

The development of organic agriculture in Bangladesh has been slow. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2018), approximately 12,000 farmers in Bangladesh produce organic crops on around 7,000 hectares of land. The transition from conventional to organic farming has been an issue of debate, especially in the context of developing nations such as Bangladesh. The debate stresses the urgency for the transition to preserve environment and health and to ensure a safe, sustainable and environmentally friendly food production system, but also emphasizes the pressure of maintaining food production for a large growing population. We focus on the debate in the context of Bangladesh, and question whether it is the proper time and stage in the development process to attempt the transition from conventional to organic food production systems. We ask why the organic rice market is not expanding in Bangladesh and explain the slow market growth through the two main factors of income constraint and lack of awareness among people about the environmental and health detriments of non-organic farming. The exploratory study finds that it is not mainly the lack of awareness but the income constraint that can be principally attributed to the slow expansion of the organic rice market in Bangladesh. Through exploring consumers’ awareness about organic farming methods and their demand for organic products, this study shows how income as a major constraint, besides price, affects consumers demand for organic and non-organic rice in Bangladesh. Income being identified as the major barrier reveals the potential of the organic rice market to grow in the future, as Bangladesh continues its journey towards becoming a middle-income country

Development and Characterization of Lead & Lead-Free Perovskite Solar Cell Materials

In recent years, perovskite photovoltaic technology has offered enormous viability and dimensionality in solar cell research. As a light-harvesting active layer, Perovskite generated remarkable development in device efficiency of 25.7% for the single-junction solar cell, and over 33% for the perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell. Also, perovskite-perovskite tandem solar cell (also called all-perovskite tandem solar cell) shows great potential in device performance and achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 26.4%. Transitioning photovoltaic technology from the laboratory to commercial products, high PCE, low cost, long lifetime, and low toxicity are some of the critical factors to consider during material selection. Pb-halide perovskites have been the most studied compositions in next-generation photovoltaics due to their excellent optoelectronic properties, such as the high PCE and ideal bandgap. However, the practical relevance of these materials is hindered as they offer multifarious disadvantages, including toxicity, high water solubility and bioavailability, and thermodynamic instability. Following the toxicity and instability issues present in the Pb-based perovskites, Pb-free perovskite compounds have been the mainstay of this thesis. Several alternative cations isoelectronic to Pb, preferablyfrom groups 14 and 15, have been explored by the perovskite research community, such as Sn2+, Ge2+, Sb3+, Pt2+, Ti2+, Bi+, Ag2+, etc. In project 1, a numerical analysis of several potential Pb-free perovskite light absorber materials has been performed by modeling the device structure using the solar cell capacitance simulator, a one-dimensional (SCAPS 1D) modeling tool, and optimizing the device characteristics to theoretically determine the optimum efficiency limits for the Pb-free compounds compared to the state-of-the-art Pb-based (FA, MA, Cs)Pb(I, Br)3 perovskite. To investigate the criteria for choosing an efficient composition and key strategies to boost their performances, 4 device parameters have been optimized, such as interface band alignments, midgap defect density, the absorption coefficient, and the thickness of the perovskite absorber. Among the several alternative cations, the Sn-based perovskite absorbers are considered the best potential substitution for Pb, due to its isoelectronic configuration similar to Pb. In recent years, high-performance Sn-based HPSCs with PCE over 20% were made possible by introducing more than 50% of Sn in Pb-based perovskite, indicating a promising approach to alleviating the toxicity of lead in organic-inorganic metal halide perovskite. In project 2, an inorganic Cs(Sn,Pb)I3 perovskite with 60% Sn has been synthesized via solution processing and the effects of additive engineering on the improvement of its photovoltaic properties and stability have been investigated. The addition of the guanidinium thiocyanate (GuaSCN) additive lowers the bandgap significantly to 1.5 eV, enhances the absorption coefficient, and reduces the oxygen concentration, compared to the films with no additive. The highly oriented mixed phase of CsSnI3 and CsPbI3 has been observed in XRD, suggesting the formation of Cs(Sn, Pb)I3 perovskite. Also, it is observed that the Cs(Sn, Pb)I3 films with GuaSCN are thermally stable as they have retained the bandgap and crystal structure after being exposed to thermal annealing for 100 hours. This study suggests the addition of the GuaSCN additive is a potential route to enhance the optical properties and stability of perovskite films. The oxidation tendency of Sn2+ to Sn4+ imbalances the charge neutrality of the CsSnI3. Recently Cs2SnI6 double perovskite has emerged as a light absorber, derived from the cubic 3D structure of CsSnI3, with a higher oxidation state of Sn4+ which accounts for the intrinsic resistance to oxidation. In project 3, SnF2-doped, p-type Cs2SnI6 perovskite has been synthesized via solution processing and the influence of several solvents and additives on its photovoltaic properties and stability has been analyzed. GBL as a solvent helps in the formation of low bandgap (1.3-1.5 eV) Cs2SnI6 perovskite phase with a small amount of unreacted CsI, which has been reduced with additives. SnF2-doped crystalline Cs2SnI6 films with pyrazine and ethylene diamine (EDA) additives show significantly suppressed CsI and Cs2SnI6 preferred orientation along the (222) crystal plane and have a minority carrier lifetime of over 6 ns, which is almost twice the lifetime in films with only SnF2. This EDA-induced Cs2SnI6 perovskite film has achieved a PCE of 5.18%. Recently a Pt-based perovskite with a composition of Cs2PtI6 was developed in our previous work with a high PCE of 13.88%. However, the high cost of Pt is a hindrance to commercialization. In project 4, an experimental screening study to assess how partially replacing Pt in cesium platinum triiodide (CsPtI3) perovskite with different concentrations of earth-abundant and low-cost nickel (Ni) influences its crystallographic and optoelectronic properties has been undertaken. We report a partial substitution of PtI2 with NiCl2 in mixed PtI2-NiCl2-based films and this work will be conducted as the future work

Additive-Assisted Optimization in Morphology and Optoelectronic Properties of Inorganic Mixed Sn-Pb Halide Perovskites

Halide perovskite solar cells (HPSCs) are promising photovoltaic materials due to their excellent optoelectronic properties, low cost, and high efficiency. Here, we demonstrate atmospheric solution processing and stability of cesium tin-lead triiodide (CsSnPbI3) thin films for solar cell applications. The effect of additives, such as pyrazine and guanidinium thiocyanate (GuaSCN), on bandgap, film morphology, structure, and stability is investigated. Our results indicate the formation of a wide bandgap (\u3e2 eV) structure with a mixed phase of tin oxide (SnO2) and Cs(Sn, Pb)I3. The addition of pyrazine decreases the intensity of SnO2 peaks, but the bandgap does not change much. With the addition of GuaSCN, the bandgap of the films reduces to 1.5 eV, and a dendritic structure of Cs(Sn, Pb)I3 is observed. GuaSCN addition also reduces the oxygen content in the films. To enable uniform film crystallization, cesium chloride (CsCl) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) additives are used in the precursor. Both CsCl and DMSO suppress dendrite formation with the latter resulting in uniform polycrystalline films with a bandgap of 1.5 eV. Heat and light soaking (HLS) stability tests at 65 degrees C and 1 sun for 100 h show all film types are stable with temperature but result in phase segregation with light exposure

Labour Market and Non-labour Market Outcomes of Education in Bangladesh: Does Education Matter in the Formation of Outcomes in Adulthood?

What is the purpose of education? Is it to find a job and earn money? Or is it also to become more civically engaged and more aware about the responsibility of voting? These are some of the underlying questions that motivate this thesis, whereby I use the motivation for what purposes we expect education to serve to consider the question: What outcomes do we expect education to yield for each individual, and in turn, for the societies they live in? On one hand, for individuals, there are labour market outcomes of education- i.e., outcomes related to employment such as earnings, employment status and job type- whereby education affects individuals’ labour force participation and individuals’ earnings (Card, 1999; Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018; Rahman & Islam, 2019). Consequently, by influencing individuals’ income and socio-economic status, education reduces their likelihood of poverty and consequently contributes to economic growth and economic development (Barro & Lee, 2013; Lutz, 2008; Mankiw et al., 1992; Pelinescu, 2015; Woessmann, 2016). Interestingly, in line with the employment-driven capitalistic narratives of today’s world, the labour market outcomes of education, i.e., education levels, have long been a focus of researchers and policymakers but little is understood on the topic in terms of different types of education. The question, thus, arises: Does the type of education, i.e., whether it is the general/academic type or religious or TVET, matter? On the other hand, for individuals, beyond the dominant narrative of labour market outcomes of education, there are non-labour-market outcomes of education- i.e., outcomes not directly related to employment such as individuals’ civic engagement and their voting behaviour-whereby education, through influencing individuals’ non-labour-market outcomes, ultimately contributes to societal betterment by lowering public health expenditure, by strengthening democracy, and by ensuring human rights, less crime in society, better environmental benefits, among others (McMahon, 2007, 2009). Therefore, education matters for individuals, their families, and for society as well. Importantly, there are non-labour-market outcomes beyond outcomes related to the labour market that warrant public investment in education, because essentially, investment in education should be motivated by the expectation that education will yield not only individuals who attain employment and earn, but also individuals who are more civically engaged and vote responsibly. The latter often escapes our attention in setting narratives, and so, in support of investing in education for the attainment of both labour market and non-labour-market outcomes of education, this thesis focuses on whether, and the extent to which, education is associated with a number of labour market outcomes and non-labour-market outcomes, on the individual level, in the context of Bangladesh- a lower-middle income country of the global south. As such, this thesis has two main lines of arguments as described below. First, in terms of labour market outcomes of education in Bangladesh, research has dominantly been focused on individuals’ earnings as an outcome of education, i.e., the economic returns to education, and especially on how earnings varies across individuals’ with different levels of education (see for example, Ahmed & McGillivray, 2015; Asadullah, 2006; Hossain, 1990; Riboud et al., 2007; Shafiq, 2007). Yet, there are also different types/streams of education in Bangladesh, e.g., general education, madrasah, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), co-existing at each education level, and so, the question arises: Do individuals’ earnings vary when comparing between general education and different educational routes, such as religious/madrasah education or TVET? Also, considering that individuals studying in these different education routes may have different aspirations and experiences, we cannot ignore the question of whether other labour market outcomes beyond earnings, such as individuals’ probability of being employed, job type and job sector, vary across different educational routes too. Most empirical studies in Bangladesh so far have not focused on these questions related to different streams of education, and so, in investigating these overlooked questions, this thesis focuses on whether labour market outcomes-employment status, job sector, type of job as well as earnings- vary across different educational routes in this context. Second, in exploring different outcomes of education, that is, the role of education in the formation of different individual outcomes, the dominant narrative has been to focus on labour market outcomes of education in the belief that the main purpose of education is to get a job and earn. This does not mean, however, that the purpose of education has to solely be job-oriented. What about other aspects relevant to how individuals interact in society, for instance civic engagement or voting? Significantly, the Ministry of Education in Bangladesh acknowledges aims beyond just those related to labour market-related outcomes, such as building skilled human resources for productivity and economic advancement, and includes aims that are more non-labour-market related, such as becoming good citizens, developing a democratic culture and social awareness, and stimulating moral, human, cultural and social values (Government of People’s Republic of Bangladesh (GoB), 2010). However, to the best of my knowledge, there is limited empirical evidence on such non-labour-market outcomes of education in Bangladesh, especially in terms of rural contexts. To fill this gap, this thesis moves beyond the dominant narrative of education being solely for labour-market gains by examining the role of education in the formation of some non-labour-market outcomes, in arguing that non-labour-market outcomes of education, such as the ones examined in this thesis, should be considered as central to an education and why we attend formal education. In sum, for each of the empirical cases outlined above, this thesis addresses, and fills, a gap in existing research and, essentially, sheds light on two different non-dominant narratives. First, in terms of labour market outcomes, this thesis focuses on different types of education, which has so far been shadowed by a focus on only education levels. In doing so, I use nationally representative data from both rural and urban areas in Bangladesh and explore differences in four different labour market outcomes- individuals’ likelihood of being employed, their type of job, job sector and their earnings- across religious/madrasah and general education (first empirical chapter-chapter 4) and across TVET and general education (second empirical chapter-chapter 5). Second, for the case of non-labour-market outcomes, this thesis uses data representative of rural populations, which contains important information on educational levels and a range of different non-labour-market outcomes. With 61% of Bangladesh’s population still residing in rural areas (World Bank, 2021), this thesis sheds light on the extent to which different levels of education, in particular primary, secondary, higher secondary and tertiary education, are related to the following non-labour-market outcomes later in life: civic engagement (third empirical chapter-chapter 6) and whether individuals vote in different local and national elections in Bangladesh (final empirical chapter- chapter 7). For the analyses in this thesis, I employ quantitative empirical approaches such as Ordinary Least Squares, Logit models, Propensity Score Matching and Poisson models. In the case of the investigation of labour market outcomes across educational routes, this thesis finds that an individuals’ educational route being either general or madrasah does affect an individuals’ probability of being employed and their type of job but not their labour market earnings, and that being madrasah-educated leads to a lesser likelihood of being employed. On the other hand, being TVET-educated, compared to general-educated, does not, in general, affect individuals’ probability of being employed. For the case of the examination of non-labour-market outcomes of education, this thesis finds that individuals with higher levels of education in rural areas are: (1) Often more likely to be comfortable public speakers and more likely to contribute to the community, and (2) Less likely to vote, and this is observed especially in the case of younger respondents. Overall, the contribution of this thesis is twofold. First, it compels us to critically acknowledge different educational routes in the research of labour market outcomes of education in Bangladesh, which is important in order to be truly inclusive and aware of different groups of individuals having different perceptions, educational goals, preferences and different purposes. Second, it contributes to the limited literature on the non-labour-market outcomes of education in rural Bangladesh, and the global south in general.My PhD was fully funded by the Commonwealth Cambridge Trust PhD Scholarship

Additive-Assisted Optimization in Morphology and Optoelectronic Properties of Inorganic Mixed Sn-Pb Halide Perovskites

Halide perovskite solar cells (HPSCs) are promising photovoltaic materials due to their excellent optoelectronic properties, low cost, and high efficiency. Here, we demonstrate atmospheric solution processing and stability of cesium tin-lead triiodide (CsSnPbI3) thin films for solar cell applications. The effect of additives, such as pyrazine and guanidinium thiocyanate (GuaSCN), on bandgap, film morphology, structure, and stability is investigated. Our results indicate the formation of a wide bandgap (>2 eV) structure with a mixed phase of tin oxide (SnO2) and Cs(Sn, Pb)I3. The addition of pyrazine decreases the intensity of SnO2 peaks, but the bandgap does not change much. With the addition of GuaSCN, the bandgap of the films reduces to 1.5 eV, and a dendritic structure of Cs(Sn, Pb)I3 is observed. GuaSCN addition also reduces the oxygen content in the films. To enable uniform film crystallization, cesium chloride (CsCl) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) additives are used in the precursor. Both CsCl and DMSO suppress dendrite formation with the latter resulting in uniform polycrystalline films with a bandgap of 1.5 eV. Heat and light soaking (HLS) stability tests at 65 °C and 1 sun for 100 h show all film types are stable with temperature but result in phase segregation with light exposure

Trends in Intergenerational Education Mobility in Bangladesh

Peer reviewed: True When children are able to progress beyond their parents’ education level, that is, when there is upward intergenerational education mobility—they are more likely to have better opportunities and access than their parents in terms of jobs and income. For any nation, it is important to understand the trajectory of intergenerational education mobility and ask: Has it been increasing? In the case of Bangladesh, our study is the first to use nationally representative household survey data to explore the trend of intergenerational education mobility. We compute intergenerational education mobility separately for three different years—2005, 2010 and 2016, and find that intergenerational education mobility has, from 2005 to 2016, significantly decreased in terms of fathers’ education. This is surprising given that the expansion of education has been a target both policy-wise and action-wise—for Bangladesh over the last few decades. The finding in terms of mothers’ education—that intergenerational education mobility has significantly increased from 2005 to 2016—makes more sense given the focus on female education expansion in Bangladesh over the years. Moreover, our results indicate that daughters, in general, have been progressing better compared to sons in terms of intergenerational (father–child) education mobility and that children of fathers with higher education levels progressed better than children of fathers with lower education levels. We suggest policies accordingly and emphasize the need to investigate the reasons behind the father–child education immobility over time in Bangladesh. </jats:p