Marketing efficiency of vegetables in developing economies: Evidences for critical intervention from Rajasthan, India

The purpose of the study is to identify the marketing channels, the relative profitability, and marketing efficiency of vegetables in a developing country, India, and identify points for critical intervention. The study uses field level data collected from farmers who cultivate carrot and tomato. Farm level data was collected from 240 farmers, 60 wholesalers (traders/contractors) and 60 retailers. Farmer’s share in consumer’s rupee is about 25% in carrot and 41% in tomato. The marketing efficiency index in prominent channels of 0.33 in carrot and 0.71 in tomato is quite low. The most common and important constraint is the non-adherence of traders with the prescribed auction system leading to lower price realisation to the farmers, followed by excessive deductions from value realised. Suggestions are provided to enhance marketing efficiency

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Not AvailableThe study on “Estimation of Marketing Efficiency of Horticultural Commodities under Different Supply Chains in India” was conducted in 7 states viz Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Manipur, Rajasthan and Punjab and Innovtive Models in Horticulture Marketing in India study by NCAP. The main objective of the study are to estimate marketing cost, market margin, price spread and producer share in consumer rupee and suggest suitable strategies for improvement of marketing efficiency of different horticultural commodities. The executive summary of these states is furnished below. The study was taken up in Ranga Reddy, Medak and Hyderabad districts of Andhra Pradesh. The crops included were Potato, Tomato, Baby corn, Roses and Grapes. A sample of 90 farmers each for all the selected crops except for grape was selected. The data pertaining to grapes could not be collected from more than 50 farmers due to limitation of availability of required sample size and thus the total sample size was 410 farmers. In terms of supply chains, in the case of potato, the preferred channel was producer-wholesalerretailer-consumer (PWRC).The preferred supply chain for tomatoes on the other hand was producer-middleman-wholesaler-retailers-consumer (PMWRC). The supply chains for baby corn were producer-middlemen-retailer-consumer (PMRC).Producers of roses preferred producerwholesaler-retailer-consumer (PWRC) supply chain, and subsequently roses and grapes followed a similar pattern, with producer-middleman-wholesaler-retailers-consumer (PMWRC) supply chain. With respect to marketing costs, the farmer-producer of potato was seen to incur the highest marketing cost compared to that of producers of the other crops studied. In addition, it was evident that the market cost incurred by the retailers was lower than that of the wholesalers and commission agents. In terms of price spread it was evident in the marketing of all the crops that marketing margins at wholesalers and retailers level and also the market cost was relatively high at the intermediary level. The data supports the argument that the intermediaries play a crucial role in realizing better margins to all the crops compared to that of growers. In the case of the share of different agencies during marketing of fruits and vegetables the highest share was accrued by retailer followed by wholesalers. In terms of marketing efficiency, it was clear that in the supply chain model of producer-retailer-consumer (PRC) efficiency was 90% followed by the producerwholesaler-retailer-consumer (PWRC) and in the producer-middleman-wholesaler-consumer 25 (PMWC) it was 75%. The information indicated that the more intermediaries there in the supply chain systems, the lower was the market efficiency. The chief constraints for farmers were malpractices in auction and faulty weighing; wholesalers cited inadequate storage facilities and retailers referred to exploitative middlemen and inadequate marketing facilities. Other complaints by farmers included high market fees. Thus it could be concluded that the marketing cost, marketing margin, transport cost, labor wages and the length of the market channel had negative influence on the marketing efficiency. Bangalore urban and rural districts, which form the most important horticultural belt of Karnataka state, have purposively been selected as the study area. Data on month wise procurement of different fruits and vegetables by SAFAL, Bangalore was taken as the primary focus for crop selection. Banana (Robusta) and tomato formed the ones that are dealt with throughout the year hence were selected as the crops for this study. Total sample size worked out to 130 and above for each crop. Marketing of horticultural crops includes a number of marketing channels involving the traditional as well as modern marketing networks. In Karnataka several models of marketing networks involving backward and forward linkages have emerged in marketing of horticultural crops. This study analyzed the performance of some of these marketing networks on the basis of their performance and marketing efficiency. The study specifically evaluated three modern systems Viz., SAFAL, Namdharis and HOPCOMs in comparison to the traditional marketing networks for banana and tomato crops in the state. Several channels of marketing could be identified in banana (Robusta) marketing in Karnataka. Field sale is the most common, followed by self marketing by the producer at the nearby wholesale market. Sale at the HOPCOMs society is also popular, while the sale to the newly established corporate house, SAFAL is the latest. It could be seen from the analyses that producers share in consumers rupee has the largest in the co-operative channel (62.3%) followed by the traditional wholesale network (51%). Despite all the hype, the SAFAL network fetches the farmer only 50 percent of the consumers’ rupee. Total marketing costs incurred in Banana sale was in the range of Rs.2.77 to Rs. 5.1 /kg, with SAFAL outlet sales taking the largest chunk. Total margins of the different market intermediaries were in the range of Rs. 2.65/kg in the co-operative channel to Rs. 4.82/kg in the traditional channels. Marketing efficiency measured in terms of modified Acharya’s formula was the highest 26 for the co-operative channel at 1.65 followed by the 1.05 in the traditional wholesale channel while SAFAL registered an efficiency of 0.99, which is better than the field sale channel. Price spread ranged from Rs 4.90 in the cooperative channel to Rs 8.80 in SAFAL outlet route. Yelaki banana is most popularly grown in and around Ramnagar region of Mandya district, Karnataka. This has received a boost from the extension of co-operative marketing network of HOPCOMs at the district.It could be seen from the analyses that producers share in consumers rupee was the largest in the co-operative channel (70%) in comparison to the 46 .5% in the traditional wholesale network. Total marketing costs incurred in Banana sale was in the range of Rs.2.76 to Rs. 4.95 /kg, with co-operative network and wholesale market network. Total margins of the different market intermediaries were in the range of Rs. 5.42/kg in the co-operative channel to Rs. 16.39/kg in the traditional channels. Price spread ranged from Rs 4.90 in the cooperative channel to Rs 8.80 in SAFAL outlet route.The marketing network of tomato included the traditional marketing channel of sale through Kolar wholesale market, sale through SAFAL and its outlets, HOPCOMs and their outlets and contract cultivation for Namdhari seeds private limited. Net farm price varied from Rs. 4.05 /kg in the Namdhari fresh channel to Rs. 5.93/kg in the channel 3, i.e., the distant market sale. While the procedure adopted by the SAFAL network is similar to that for Banana, the Namdhari fresh offers farm gate procurement. Producers share in consumers rupee in case of tomato among the six channels studied was the highest in the cooperative network involving HOPCOMs at 435 followed by distant market channel and SAFAL. The lowest was for the producers dealing with Namdhari. Total marketing costs incurred in tomato marketing ranged from Rs. 2.45/kg in Namdhari sale to Rs. 6.28/kg in Kolar marketing. Total margins of the different market intermediaries were in the range of Rs. 2.55/kg in the co-operative channel to Rs. 9.00/Kg in the namdhari market network Marketing efficiency measured in terms of modified Acharya’s formula was the highest for the cooperative channel at 0.75 followed by the 0.73 in the traditional distant market channel. Price spread ranged from Rs 7.15 in the cooperative channel to Rs 11.45 in Namdhari. In Tamil Nadu data was collected from farmers and market intermediaries for the four selected vegetables viz brinjal, potato, tapioca and gherkin. The data were based on respondent recall and as per existing practices and pertain to the year 2009-10. For each of the four vegetables covered under the present study samples of 120 farmers were selected, and hence the total sample size is 630. 27 Lessons from the study of the vegetables, brinjal, potato, tapioca and gherkins indicate that marketing issues were larger than mere reduction in the number of middlemen or promoting adhoc measures. Number of tapioca processing industries in Salem District are said to be declining in number due to gradual reduction in area under tapioca cultivation in surrounding districts. Similarly, gherkins processors have been facing major problems since the economic slow down in the west which is the major importing countries. On the contrary, brinjal and potato farmers have been reaping greater benefits in recent year due to escalating vegetable prices. Similar increases in market prices have been observed for commonly consumed vegetables. Results presented in the study indicated that in the most common marketing channels for the studied vegetables the marketing cost was a reasonable 15 per cent of the consumer price and marketing margins of the intermediaries constituted again a reasonable 10 per cent. Producers get about 75 per cent of the consumer rupee. However, problems arise to the producers mostly because of the wider price fluctuations due to production cycles. While production and marketing costs for the farmers remain fixed, abnormal down trends in prices inflicts heavy damages in terms of income loss for them. Market intermediaries only suffer loss of turnover with their margins and fees fixed. Study has been conducted in three coastal districts of West Bengal, viz, South 24 Parganas, North 24 Parganas and East Midnapore. Three vegetables, brinjal, bhindi (ladies finger) and tomato have been selected. Among flowers and fruits, marigold and guava respectively have been selected. The sample size number of farmers interviewed are 272 and number of middlemen interviewed are 113, and hence the total sample size is 385. Brinjal and bhindi are marketed through same marketing channels, in the study area. Marketing channels for tomato are frequently changing depending on season and local supply. Tomato is marketed through more number of marketing channels and also passes through more long channels as compared to other vegetables under study (brinjal and bhindi). Dominating marketing channels for guava is shorter in length because it has to reach to final consumer as quick as possible after harvesting to fetch better prices. Guava looses its flavour, vigor glossiness, freshness and taste very quickly. Marigold is also highly perishable and requires quick disposal after harvesting. It has to reach to final consumer in quickest possible time, preferably within a day to realize better prices. Majority of marigold and guava are marketed 28 through wholesale marketing, at Mullick Ghat Ful Bazar, and Machna Ful Patty of Kolkata, respectively. Marketing cost for brinjal incurred by farmers has been calculated to be Rs. 80/q, and the same was Rs. 70/q for bhindi, Rs. 90/q for tomato, Rs. 105/ 1000 no. of guava and Rs. 110/100 no. of garlands. Total marketing margin has been calculated to be Rs. 990/q for brinjal and the same was Rs. 778/q for bhindi, Rs. 894/q for tomato, Rs. 1138/1000 no. of guava and Rs. 4458/100 unit (kuri) of garlands. For brinjal the price spread (Consumers’ price – producers’ price) has been calculated to be Rs. 955/q, and the same is Rs. 850/q for bhindi, Rs. 1055/q for tomato, Rs. 985/1000 no for guava, and Rs. 2800/100 unit (kuri) for marigold marketing. In case of brinjal the producers’ share in the consumers’ price was estimated to be 44 percent and the same was 37 percent under bhindi, 26 percent under tomato, 45 percent under guava and 60 percent under marigold. The marketing efficiency has been estimated as 0.79 for brinjal, 0.58 for guava and 1.51 for marigold marketing. The study was taken up in Bishnupur, Imphal-West, Ukhrul, Thoubal, Churachandpur and Senapati districts of Manipur and Aizawl district of Mizoram state. The crops included were Tomato, Cabbage, Passion fruit and Anthurium. Data were collected from 480 farmers and 155 middlemen (wholesaler, retailers and traders) and hence the total sample size was 635. It was observed that the maximum quantity of tomato in the sample area was marketed through retailers. As tomato is highly perishable, losses consumed highest share in the total marketing cost. Most of the farmers in hilly region of Manipur market their cabbage through village traders, while those in the plain regions market their produce through wholesalers. The passion fruit growers of Churachandpur district market their produce through the Passion Beekeeping Development Association of Churachandpur district, Manipur. About one third of the total cut flowers of anthurium produced in the Mizoram have been sold outside the state through Bangalore based exporter, ZOPAR Export Ltd. and the remaining consumed in the state. Transportation cost consumed the highest share in the marketing cost of these produces. Marketing cost and marketing margin vary considerably from channel to channel and were related directly to the length of the channel, i.e., longer the channel, more were the marketing cost and marketing margin. The price paid by the consumer increased with the increase in the length of the marketing channel or with the increased in the numbers of intermediaries involved between the producer and the ultimate consumers. As the length of channel increases the price 29 spread also increases and vice-versa. The marketing efficiency increased with the decrease in marketing margin and open market price and with the increase in volume of the produce handled and length of market channel. The major constraints of marketing horticultural crops include lack of market to absorb the production, low price for the products, large number of middlemen in marketing system, lack of marketing institutions to safeguard the farmers’ interest and rights over their marketing (e.g. cooperatives), lack of coordination among producers to increase their bargaining power, poor product handling and packaging, imperfect pricing system and lack of transparency in market information system. Present study was conducted in Jaipur and Sriganganagar districts of Rajasthan. Sriganganagar district was selected for study of kinnow and carrot crop while, Jaipur district was selected for aonla and tomato crop. These districts were selected based on significant area under selected fruits and vegetables crop. Sample size was kept uniform for all fruits and vegetable crops. For each crop 120 farmers were selected. Beside this, information was also collected from 30 wholesalers/ traders/ contractors and 30 retailers for each fruit and vegetables crop studied. There were three important marketing channels through which kinnow produce were sold by farmers in Sriganganagar district. The marketing channel- I was most famous as about 71 percent produce was sold through it. In channel-II farmers directly brought produce in the mandi and sold it through commission agents either in local or distant markets in same or other states. In channel III producers sell the produce after grading and processing. The produce was either processed by farmers himself at his processing plant or on payment basis at grading plants situated around Ganganagar city. Total marketing cost of about Rs 807 was observed in channelI when sold to distant markets in south particularly Bangalore city. The cost was shared by contractors (65.30%), commission agents (3.72 %) and retailers (30.98%). The maximum cost of marketing was shared by contractors as he arranges labour for fruits harvesting, packing and pays the cost of packing material and transportation cost. Total marketing cost had 29.49 and 15.67 percent share in consumer price in channel I and II, respectively. There were three important marketing channels through which aonla produce were sold by farmers in Jaipur district. The marketing channel-I was the major one as about 87 percent produce was sold through it. In channel-II, farmers directly brought produce in the mandi and sold it through commission agents. The marketing cost in channel II was lower than channel I as produce was 30 directly brought by farmers in the mandi and sold through retailers to consumers after paying taxes of market and fee of commission agents. There were two important marketing channels through which carrot produce were sold by farmers in Ganganagar district. The marketing channel-I was the largest one as about 85 percent produce was sold through it. Traders from adjoining states like Punjab, Haryana and other parts of Rajasthan were participating in the auction which takes place on the banks of Ganga canal. The total marketing cost was lower in channel II compared to I because produce was not taken to distant places and number of intermediaries were also fewer .There were two important marketing channels through which tomato produce were sold by farmers in Jaipur district. Produce procured in channel I was sold in different markets of Rajasthan, viz. Jaipur, Sikar, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Sardarshahar, Churu and various cities in Punjab and Haryana etc, while in Channel II produce is directly procured by retailers and sold in Chomu or Jaipur city. The total marketing cost was lower in channel II compared to I because produce was not taken to distant places and number of intermediaries were also fewer. Strategies to enhance marketing efficiency of fruits and vegetables vary according to nature of produce and kind of marketing facilities in a particular region. Discussions were held with farmers, contractors, wholesalers, processors and retailers to get the idea about improvement in marketing system so that efficiency of the whole marketing system is improved and farmers get adequate returns from this enterprise to remain in horticulture crops farming. Regarding fruits both kinnow and aonla are important fruit crops of Rajasthan. More than 50 percent produce of both fruits are transported outside state for further processing or for direct consumption. There is not a single fruit processing industry for kinnow in the production region. In Punjab, five important vegetables were studied in the study. These are potato, tomato, green peas, brinjal and okra. Jalandhar district was selected for potato, Kapurthala for tomato, Hoshiarpur for green peas, and Jalandhar for brinjal and okra based on area under these crops. The convenience sampling technique was used for selection of different types of respondents in the study. For each vegetable, the sample consisted of 120 farmers except 93 farmers for brinjal. Further, for each vegetable, 30 wholesalers, 30 retailers and 30 farmers from Apni Mandi were selected. Thus, the total sample consisted of 573 farmers, 150 wholesalers, 150 retailers and 150 farmers from Apni Mandi. For the present study, the total number of all types of respondents was 1023. 31 The study brought out that the net price received by the producer was about Rs 554/q which in percentage terms was about 46 per cent of the consumer’s purchase price in supply chain I in Kapurthala market. The expenses borne by the wholesaler and retailer were Rs 68 and Rs 84/ q. These respective expenses were about 6 and 7 per cent of the consumer’s purchase price. The margin of the wholesaler and retailer was 11 per cent and 26 per cent of the purchase price of consumer. The producer’s net price received was Rs 579/q in supply chain II. This was about 48 per cent of the consumer’s purchase price. The expenses and margins of the retailer were about 12 per cent and 36 per cent of the consumer’s price. The retailer’s margins were comparatively less in supply chain I as compared to supply chain II. For sale of tomato in supply chain III (Apni Mandi), the net price received by the producer was Rs 1024/q which was 93 per cent of the consumer’s purchase price. The marketing efficiency in supply chain III was 13.42 as against 1.01 in supply chain II and 0.92 in supply chain I. The marketing efficiency in supply chain III was high on account of the fact that no middleman was involved and produce was directly sold to consumers. As compared to supply chain I, the marketing efficiency of tomato was marginally high in supply chain II due to less number of the intermediaries in the latter. In case of potato, market margins and costs were the major explanatory variables significantly affecting the marketing efficiency. It infers that with one percent increase in marketing margin and cost, the resultant marketing efficiency declined by 0.61 and 0.37 percent respectively. In case of tomato, the coefficients of marketing margins and costs were significantly and negatively related with the marketing efficiency. The coefficient indicated that one percent increase in these variables resulted into fall in the marketing efficiency by 0.69 percent and 0.38 percent respectively. In case of green peas, market margins and costs were the major explanatory variables significantly affecting the marketing efficiency. It infers that with one percent increase in these variables the resultant marketing efficiency declined by 0.45 and 0.44 percent respectively. In case of brinjal, the various explanatory variables included in the model were significantly affecting the marketing efficiency. The coefficients of market margins and costs were significantly negatively related with the dependent variable. It can be inferred that with one percent increase in these variables, the marketing effi

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Not AvailableMarketing signals are necessary when entering a foreign market. Information requirement is essential related to on international marketing decision, market selection, product, price, promotion, distribution and competition.India is the fruit and vegetable basket of the world. The vast production base offers India tremendous opportunities for exports. During 2011-12, India exported vegetable and fruits worth Rs. 4801.29 crores. The main objective of the study is analyses market signals of exports and prices of major Indian horticultural commodities and identification of their destinations.The study period is 199091 to 2012-13. The sample size is the time series data of 23 years. The methodology adopted is compound annual growth rates, regression and Coefficient variation of instability index. The study found that fruits, vegetables, flowers quantity export growth rates positive and high except walnut and mushrooms. Whereas all commodities price growth rates were positive and high. The study found that all elasticity’s of fruits, vegetables and flowers are elastic except walnut and mushrooms (inelastic). Over 6590% fruits and 50 to 65% vegetables of India’s exports in fresh products go to West Asia and East European markets. Exports of Gherkins (53%), Mushrooms (94%) going to the USA, United Kingdom, France, Spain, Israel and Russia. The demand is more than supply indicating fruits and vegetables requirement in the exports markets are promising. The tariffs for fruits banana, grapes and mango are 4.85%, 3.75%, and 3.75% respectively. And for vegetables, onion and green chillies are 11.25%, 11.25%. Important point noted to be is for fruits and vegetable duties are free. The export policies have provided an export friendly environment by simplifying the procedures for trade facilitation. Pesticide residue is the most important food safety factor. Different countries have different standards for fruits and vegetables.The regression signals shows that balance of agriculture trade and quantity exports are positively affecting on onion export prices and percent of exports positively affecting on gherkins export prices. Export prices and balance of agricultural trade are positively affecting on potato quantity of exports. Export prices and production are positive affect on onion quantity of exports. Percentage exports and balance of agriculture trade positively affecting on Mango export prices.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableWe are living in multispeed world economies. The globe has initiated measures to support horticulture industry. India is the fruit and vegetable basket of the world. The vast production base offers India tremendous opportunities for exports. During 2011-12, India exported vegetable and fruits worth Rs. 4801.29 crores. The main objective of the study is to estimate exports, price trends, elasticity’s and identifies major destinations for India’s fruits, vegetables and flowers. The study period is 1990-91 to 2012-13. The sample size is the time series data of 23 years. The methodology adopted is compound annual growth rates and Coefficient variation of instability index. India is exporting these commodities to130 countries. The study found that fruits, vegetables, flowers quantity export growth rates positive and high except walnut and mushrooms. Whereas all commodities price growth rates in the export destinations were positive and high. The study found that all elasticity’s of fruits, vegetables and flowers are elastic except walnut and mushrooms (inelastic). Among fruits, banana has high export elasticity (4.38%) and among vegetables, green chilies have high (3.98%). Over 65-90% fruits and 50 to 65% vegetables of India’s exports in fresh products go to West Asia and East European markets. Exports of Gherkins (53%), Mushrooms (94%) going to the USA, United Kingdom, France, Spain, Israel and Russia. The major destinations for India’s Rose are Netherland, Ethiopia and UAE and for walnut are Nepal, UK and France (40%). The study strongly advocates that India should design multispeed strategies to boost horticultural exports, foreign earnings and develop modern export supply chains.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableDigital Economy, Ecommerce and fortune economy depend on export market information. Globally, horticulture industry is one of the noteworthy sectors. India is major fruit and vegetable basket of the world. This study estimates exports, price growth rates, elasticity’s, identifies major destinations and trace global supply chains for horticultural commodities. The study period is 1990- 1991 to 2012-2013. Compound annual growth rates, elasticities and instability index are the methodological tools employed. All fruits’, vegetables’ and flowers’ elasticities are shown to be elastic excluding walnut & mushrooms. Tea’s & Coffee’s elasticities are elastic. The supply chain channels to Europe, UK, US and Middle East highly developed and no middlemen involved. In case of South Asia, Africa and South East Asia, lengthy and middlemen involved. Global supply chain model must be connecting directly producers with exporters and importers or consumers of importing countries. This is possible digitalization of data and single window processingNot Availabl

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Not AvailableThe establishment of National Seeds Corporation (NSC) in 1963 marked the begining of formal seed sector in India and the Indian seed industry has come a long way since then. The seed industry was dominated by the public sector during the first 25 years, ie till 1988. The growth drivers in this period were the ushering of green revolution and special government schemes to increase SRR through programmes like National Seed Project. The liberalisation of seed policy in the form of New Policy on Seed Development (NPSD) 1988 opened the doors for private domestic and multinational seed companies for import of seeds and technologies as well as investment in research and development. The laws and policies thereafter have encouraged private participation, benefitted private seed companies and provided better market access to foreign seed companies. The fact that from 1984 to 1995, around 50-60% of the seed requirement was met by the private sector and in 2010 it was estimated that 80% of turnover in seed business came from private companies establishes the dominance of private seed companies at present. The seed production has quadrupled from 1991 to 2011. The growth was more spectacular in the last decade (2001 to 2011) when seed production tripled with a robust Compound Growth Rate (CAGR) of 15% pa. The growth drivers in this period were the rapid growth of innovations (improved varieties, hybrids and proprietary technologies) and seed markets (especially for Bt cotton, single-cross maize hybrids, hybrid rice, vegetables and few self-pollinated crops), strengthening of IPRs coupled with liberalised seed policies. The future growth drivers of Indian seed industry would be technological breakthroughs to mitigate biotic and abiotic stresses including climate change, favourable regulatory environment for GM crops, government policies to promote investment in seed R&D and infrastructure (both in public and private sector) and providing access to international marketsNot Availabl

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Not AvailableThe establishment of National Seeds Corporation (NSC) in 1963 marked the begining of formal seed sector in India and the Indian seed industry has come a long way since then. The seed industry was dominated by the public sector during the first 25 years, ie till 1988. The growth drivers in this period were the ushering of green revolution and special government schemes to increase SRR through programmes like National Seed Project. The liberalisation of seed policy in the form of New Policy on Seed Development (NPSD) 1988 opened the doors for private domestic and multinational seed companies for import of seeds and technologies as well as investment in research and development. The laws and policies thereafter have encouraged private participation, benefitted private seed companies and provided better market access to foreign seed companies. The fact that from 1984 to 1995, around 50-60% of the seed requirement was met by the private sector and in 2010 it was estimated that 80% of turnover in seed business came from private companies establishes the dominance of private seed companies at present. The seed production has quadrupled from 1991 to 2011. The growth was more spectacular in the last decade (2001 to 2011) when seed production tripled with a robust Compound Growth Rate (CAGR) of 15% pa. The growth drivers in this period were the rapid growth of innovations (improved varieties, hybrids and proprietary technologies) and seed markets (especially for Bt cotton, single-cross maize hybrids, hybrid rice, vegetables and few self-pollinated crops), strengthening of IPRs coupled with liberalised seed policies. The future growth drivers of Indian seed industry would be technological breakthroughs to mitigate biotic and abiotic stresses including climate change, favourable regulatory environment for GM crops, government policies to promote investment in seed R&D and infrastructure (both in public and private sector) and providing access to international markets.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableGlobal agricultural growth has been slowing down. Crop production constitutes lion share of agricultural output. Empirical studies show that over the 40 years, crops growth rates in terms of yield gains and total production has been impressive but not substantial. This is mirroring in general in most of the developing countries and in India in particular. Crop plants originated from wild species through Mendelian variation, inter-specific hybridization or polyploidy. Genetic diversity plays an important role in crop improvement because hybridization between lines of diverse origin generally displays a greater heterosis than between, closely related strains. Infect, genetic diversity is more in cross-pollinated crops compared to self-pollinated crops. Until now, researchers and public are dealing with the agricultural production performance under cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibber crops and so on but there is no (limited) study analyzed based on Mendelian variation. So this study uses new way of analyzes based on Mendelian variation perspective to study the production performance and growth trends of crops under self, cross and often cross-pollinated crops. The present paper is an attempt to examine critically the compound growth rates of area, production and productivity during distinct epochs in the agricultural development of India. Further, focus on the performance status of India’s major crops vis-à-vis the top three crop productivity nations of the world with special reference to self, cross and often cross-pollinated crops for the period of 1950-51 to 2011-12. Essentially, such a comparison will provide insights regarding the magnitude of the yield-gap that countries having low productivity need to bridge. A comparison of India with other nations reveals that India is second in the rice, wheat and groundnut production. The production differences between India and those nations are substantial in cross and often cross-pollinated crops compare to self-pollinated crops. However, the productivity differences between India and high productivity countries are more in cross-pollinated crops followed by self and often cross-pollinated crops. India needs to explore comparative yield advantages in cross-pollinated crops. Rice and wheat are the two principal crops grown in India. Though cross pollinated and often cross pollinated crops such as maize, sugarcane, cotton and tobacco hold promise for the future, the incessant area expansion under rice and wheat have relegated these crops to the background. In India, compound growth rates reflect that the pivot of green revolution as wheat. This is reflected by the crop growth rate of 5.65% during green revolution period. All through wheat productivity increased at increasing rates of 1.27%, 2.67% and 2.97% indicates technological breakthroughs in wheat production. Similarly, cotton productivity also increased at increasing rates of 2.04%, 2.54%, and 3.75%. To conclude, among self-pollinated crops; India stands second in paddy, wheat, groundnut and first in jute production. But in terms of productivity India trails behind higher productive countries. This calls for steps to enhance productivity. Further, scientists should give more emphasis on cross-pollinated crops. Bureaus of plant genetic resources must preserve and take steps to enhance genetic diversity of these crops. Planners and policy makers must have vigilance in land allocation and price fixation based on Mendelian variation of crops.Not Availabl

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Not AvailableThe act of Malthusian theory of population and his prediction ‘population tended to outstrip the food supply’ did not happen in most parts of the globe and in India due to revolutions in agriculture. This research paper attempts to analyze and demonstrate various agricultural revolutions that occurred in India and across the globe. On this account the history of Indian agriculture has been glorious attributable mainly to green revolution and subsequent revolutions like white, blue, yellow, brown, feather and red revolutions. Similarly, the world super agriculture attributes Neolithic, Arab, Scottish, British and Green revolutions. This study emphasizes that scientists and policymakers can take significant steps towards achieving sustainable food security for the entire world’s populations by adopting the strengths of the various Agricultural Revolutions while seeking to avoid its weaknesses. The production and productivity of Indian all crops were increased at increasing rate in post green revolution period witnessing operation of Law of increasing production.Not Availabl