Testing the missingness mechanism in longitudinal surveys: a case study using the Health and Retirement Study

Imputation or likelihood-based approaches to handle missing data assume the data are missing completely at random (MCAR) or missing at random (MAR). However, little research has examined the missingness pattern before using these imputation/likelihood methods. Three missingness mechanisms – MCAR, MAR, and not missing at random (NMAR) – can be tested using information on research design, disciplinary knowledge, and appropriate methods. This study summarized six commonly used statistical methods to test the missingness mechanism and discussed their application conditions. We further applied these methods to a two-wave longitudinal dataset from the Health and Retirement Study (N = 18,747). Health measures met the MAR assumptions although we could not completely rule out NMAR. Demographic variables provided auxiliary information. The logistic regression method demonstrated applicability to a wide range of scenarios. This study provides a useful guide to choose methods to test missingness mechanisms depending on the research goal and nature of the data.This accepted article is published as Lu, P., & Shelley, M. (2022). Testing the missingness mechanism in longitudinal surveys: a case study using the Health and Retirement Study. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 26(4), 439–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2022.2049509. Posted with permission

Risk Perception, Preventive Behavior, and Medical Care Avoidance among American Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Objectives: This study investigated the predictors of risk perception and its effect on older adults’ preventive behavior and/or medical care avoidance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: Older respondents (age >50 years) from the MIT COVID-19 Preventive Health Survey reported their social distancing, hand washing, mask wearing, and medical care avoidance between July and October 2020 (n = 4395). Structural equation models were used. Results: Significant predictors of higher risk perception were female gender, older age, poorer health, city residency, personally knowing someone who had COVID-19, and correct knowledge of vaccine/treatment. Higher risk perception was subsequently associated with higher frequency/probability of practicing preventive behavior and/or avoiding medical care. Knowledge had the strongest path coefficient with risk perception. Discussion: Disseminating correct information to older adults could help them evaluate infection risk accurately. Educational programs on the precautions implemented at clinical settings to ensure patient safety may encourage older adults to seek timely medical care.This accepted article is published as • Peiyi Lu, Dexia Kong, and Mack Shelley, “Risk perception, preventive behavior, and medical care avoidance among American older adults during the Covid-19 pandemic,” Journal of Aging and Health, 33(7–8), 577–584 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1177/08982643211002084. Posted with permission

Unmet Community Service Needs and Life Satisfaction Among Chinese Older Adults: A Longitudinal Study

This study examined the gap between need and provision of community services in China and its association with older adults’ life satisfaction over time. Longitudinal data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey from 2008 to 2014 were used (3 waves, N = 16,199). Respondents reported if they needed nine types of community service and if their community provided such service. Growth curve models analyzed whether individual- and/or province-level characteristics predicted the initial level and/or changes of life satisfaction over time. Results indicated the presence of major unmet service needs in China. Available community services were mismatched with older adults’ perceived needs. Unmet service needs were associated with decreased life satisfaction at baseline. However, unmet service needs were not associated with changes in life satisfaction over time. Study findings highlighted the urgent need to optimize service design in accordance with older adults’ needs, which ultimately could promote older adults’ well-being.This accepted article is published as Lu, P., Shelley, M., & Kong, D. (2021). Unmet Community Service Needs and Life Satisfaction Among Chinese Older Adults: A Longitudinal Study. Social Work in Public Health, 36(6), 665–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2021.1948942. Posted with permission

A state-of-the-art review of the socio-ecological correlates of volunteerism among older adults

The health and social benefits of volunteering behaviours by older adults are well acknowledged. However, few review articles have been concerned with the correlates/dimensions of older adults’ volunteerism. Some focused only on the North American context or reviewed studies only up to 2008. This study reviewed the recent global literature in the past decade about the correlates of older adults’ volunteerism. We carried out a literature search in PsycINFO, Social Services Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts and Google Scholar to identify empirical journal publications about the correlates of older adults’ (age 60+) volunteerism from 2008 to 2019. Among 112 initially eligible papers, 41 were selected. Findings were synthesised using the framework of the Socioecological Model. Existing studies mainly have used quantitative methodologies and were conducted within the context of a single Western country. Motivations included higher education, morale and mentality, previous experiences, social network, community cohesion and organisational management. Major barriers were health and financial constraints. Few studies focused on macro-level correlates. Irrelevant and confounding correlates were also discussed. We suggest practitioners recruit and retain older volunteers by identifying their needs and optimising management within the organisation. Policy makers should create a supportive environment and increase resource accessibility. Future research could conduct cross-cultural comparisons, use diverse methodologies and embrace more correlates, especially at the macro-level.This accepted article is published as Lu, P., Xu, C., Shelley, M., A State-of-the-Art Review of the Socio-ecological Correlates of Volunteerism Among Older Adults. Ageing & Society, August 2021, 41(8);1833 - 1857 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X20000082. Posted with permission

A state-of-the-art review of the socio-ecological correlates of volunteerism among older adults

The health and social benefits of volunteering behaviours by older adults are well acknowledged. However, few review articles have been concerned with the correlates/dimensions of older adults’ volunteerism. Some focused only on the North American context or reviewed studies only up to 2008. This study reviewed the recent global literature in the past decade about the correlates of older adults’ volunteerism. We carried out a literature search in PsycINFO, Social Services Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts and Google Scholar to identify empirical journal publications about the correlates of older adults’ (age 60+) volunteerism from 2008 to 2019. Among 112 initially eligible papers, 41 were selected. Findings were synthesised using the framework of the Socioecological Model. Existing studies mainly have used quantitative methodologies and were conducted within the context of a single Western country. Motivations included higher education, morale and mentality, previous experiences, social network, community cohesion and organisational management. Major barriers were health and financial constraints. Few studies focused on macro-level correlates. Irrelevant and confounding correlates were also discussed. We suggest practitioners recruit and retain older volunteers by identifying their needs and optimising management within the organisation. Policy makers should create a supportive environment and increase resource accessibility. Future research could conduct cross-cultural comparisons, use diverse methodologies and embrace more correlates, especially at the macro-level.This accepted manuscript is published as Lu P, Xu C, Shelley M. A state-of-the-art review of the socio-ecological correlates of volunteerism among older adults. Ageing and Society. 2021;41(8):1833-1857. doi:10.1017/S0144686X20000082. Posted with permission. © The Author(s), 2020

Cumulative Dis/Advantage and Health Pattern in Late Life: A Comparison between Genders and Welfare State Regimes

This study provides a cross-national perspective to apply Cumulative Dis/Advantage (CDA) in explaining health inequality between developing and developed countries in the context of Welfare State Theory. Cross-sectional data from the international Health Retirement Study (United States, China, Mexico, and England) in 2013–2014 were used (n = 97,978). Four health indicators were included: self-reported health, depressive symptoms, functional ability, and memory. Regression models were fitted to examine the moderation roles of country and gender. Results indicated older Chinese and Mexican had poorer health status than their British and American counterparts consistently except for Mexicans’ memory. Cumulative health gaps between developing and developed countries existed only for functional ability. There is no evidence of a widening gap in health status between genders in late life. CDA explains the increasing gaps of functional ability across age groups between countries. General health and mental health, may however, depend more on individuals’ intrinsic capacity and human agency

Reexamining the poverty cycle in middle and late adulthood: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study 2002–2014

This study re-examined the poverty cycle among American middle-aged (45~64) and older (≥65) adults using contemporary data and has expanded the understanding of sociodemographic differences in the poverty cycle. Longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study (2002–2014) were used. Life tables examined age-specific and cumulative percentages of poverty. Mixed-effect logistic regression models examined the moderation role of sociodemographic characteristics in the relationship between age and poverty. The poverty proportion increased rapidly starting at age 75. The growth rate of poverty risk in late adulthood was found to be greater among women and those who did not receive public pensions. Gender divides in poverty risk in late adulthood could be attributed to the cumulative disadvantages of women’s social roles. The beneficial role of Social Security in late adulthood was supported. Policy advocacy efforts should address the needs of those who are financially vulnerable. Policy options such as financial education and retirement planning were recommended.This accepted article is published as Peiyi Lu, Mack Shelley, and Yi-Long Liu, “Reexamining the Poverty Cycle in Middle and Late Adulthood: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study 2002-2014,” International Journal of Social Welfare (2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12454. Posted with permission

Government Transfers and Poverty Alleviation among Older Adults in the United States from 2002 to 2014

Studies have indicated government transfers greatly alleviate poverty among older Americans. Yet recent social policy changes were suggested to increase older Americans’ fiscal insecurity. New evidence is needed to expand the evaluation of government transfers. Longitudinal Health and Retirement Study data from 2002 to 2014 were used. We computed individuals’ poverty status both when household income included and did not include government transfers. Results indicated the poverty rate dropped dramatically when household income included government transfers. The poverty alleviation effect was significantly greater among people who were female, older, members of a minority group, having fewer years of education, residing in the South, and living in a bigger household. Evidence from this study solidified the overall poverty alleviation effect of government transfers in old age. Differential effects among various demographic groups could be attributed to their initial status and divergent political beliefs about who should receive government transfers.This accepted article is published as Lu P, Shelley M, Liu Y-L. Government Transfers and Poverty Alleviation among Older Adults in the United States from 2002 to 2014. Social Policy and Society. 2021;20(4):561-579. doi:10.1017/S147474642000041X. Posted with permission

Government Transfers and Poverty Alleviation among Older Adults in the United States from 2002 to 2014

Studies have indicated government transfers greatly alleviate poverty among older Americans. Yet recent social policy changes were suggested to increase older Americans’ fiscal insecurity. New evidence is needed to expand the evaluation of government transfers. Longitudinal Health and Retirement Study data from 2002 to 2014 were used. We computed individuals’ poverty status both when household income included and did not include government transfers. Results indicated the poverty rate dropped dramatically when household income included government transfers. The poverty alleviation effect was significantly greater among people who were female, older, members of a minority group, having fewer years of education, residing in the South, and living in a bigger household. Evidence from this study solidified the overall poverty alleviation effect of government transfers in old age. Differential effects among various demographic groups could be attributed to their initial status and divergent political beliefs about who should receive government transfers.This accepted article is published as Lu, P., Shelley, M., Liu, Y.L., Government Transfers and Poverty Alleviation among Older Adults in the United States from 2002 to 2014. Social Policy and Society , October 2021, 20(4);561 - 579. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S147474642000041X. Posted with permission

Intersectional Discrimination Attributions and Health Outcomes Among American Older Adults: A Latent Class Analysis

Guided by an intersectionality framework, this study examined intersectional discrimination attributions and their associations with health outcomes. Older respondents (aged ≥50) from the Health and Retirement Study in 2014-2015 were included (N = 6286). Their reasons for discrimination (age, gender, sexual orientation, race, national origin, religion, financial status, weight, physical appearance, disability, and others) were examined. Latent class analysis examined the subgroup profiles. Six classes were identified: class 1 (54.52% of the sample) had no/minimal discrimination; Class 2 (21.89%) experienced primarily ageism; class 3 (8.81%) reported discrimination based on age/gender/national origin/race; class 4 (7.99%) attributed discrimination to financial/other reasons; class 5 (5.87%) experienced discrimination based on age/weight/physical appearance/disability; and class 6 (0.92%) perceived high discrimination. Intersectional discrimination was associated with poorer self-rated health and higher depressive symptoms compared to the no/minimal discrimination group. Multiple marginalized identities co-occur and contribute to discrimination. An intersectional approach is recommended to understand discrimination in later life.This accepted article is published as Lu P, Kong D, Shelley M, Davitt JK. Intersectional Discrimination Attributions and Health Outcomes Among American Older Adults: A Latent Class Analysis. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 2022;95(3):267-285. doi:10.1177/00914150211066560. Posted with permission