Life cycle assessment of perennial cultivation systems : advancing applicability and comprehensiveness

Resource-efficient perennial cultivation systems are considered promising sources of sustainably produced biomass to meet the growing demand of a future European bioeconomy. They require fewer agricultural procedures than annual systems, contribute to an increase in soil carbon sequestration and can be productive on marginal land. In Europe, the C4 grass miscanthus is the most prominent and best researched perennial crop for lignocellulosic biomass production. Recently, wild plant mixtures (WPM) have been suggested as a more diverse alternative system. Perennial cultivation systems have already been the subject of multiple sustainability assessments, with life cycle assessment (LCA) being the method most commonly used. This method aims to provide a holistic depiction of the environmental performance of a system. However, two challenges are usually encountered. First, results of agricultural LCAs very much depend on site- and management-specific characteristics. Parameters such as biomass yield, quantity of fertiliser applied and carbon sequestered can vary considerably, impairing the applicability of the method. Second, most of these studies focus on greenhouse gas emissions only. Land use impacts on biodiversity are commonly neglected, casting doubt on the comprehensiveness that LCA is trying to achieve. This thesis aims to advance the applicability and comprehensiveness of LCA of perennial cultivation systems. For this purpose, it focuses on three aspects relevant to the assessment of such systems, each of which was addressed by a dedicated research question: 1) How can the conducting and application of LCAs of perennial cultivations systems be simplified? 2) Which methodological approaches are best suited for the consideration of carbon sequestration and storage in LCAs of perennial cultivation systems? 3) How can land use impacts of perennial cultivation systems on biodiversity best be incorporated into the LCA framework? These questions were answered by applying the LCA method to perennial cultivation systems in three case studies, using specific approaches for the inclusion of sensitivity analysis and the evaluation of carbon sequestration and storage. In addition, information on the biodiversity impacts of perennial crop cultivation was collated by means of a meta-analysis which compared species richness and abundance in annual and perennial crop cultivation systems. Due to the variability of agricultural systems, the life cycle inventory phase can be quite intricate. Thus, the conducting of an LCA can be substantially simplified by focusing on a few relevant inputs and outputs only. In this thesis a global sensitivity analysis was used to identify the most important inventory parameters in the greenhouse gas assessment of miscanthus cultivation: carbon sequestration, biomass yield, length of the cultivation period, nitrogen and potassium fertiliser application, and the distance over which the harvested biomass is transported. Focusing on these inventory parameters, a simplified model was developed. It allows farmers and SME active in miscanthus-based value chains easy access to customised LCA results. This thesis includes a detailed analysis of the relevance of carbon sequestration and storage in the sustainability assessment of perennial cultivation systems. It was found that the quantity and in particular the permanence of carbon sequestered through the cultivation of perennial crops are critical for their favourability in terms of global warming impacts. Two alternative methodological approaches for the quantification of carbon sequestered were tested within two of the case studies a simple carbon model and an allometric approach. In addition, the handling of the uncertain permanence of the carbon storage was reflected upon. The approaches were compared with regard to their suitability for use by typical LCA practitioners. It was concluded that allometric models should be used for the quantification of carbon sequestered and the corresponding amount accounted for as delayed emissions. This combination provides a manageable approach for the accounting of benefits from carbon sequestration and storage, and also prevents their overestimation. Established impact assessment methods such as ReCiPe2016 suggest characterisation factors for the incorporation of land use impacts on biodiversity into LCA. These factors use relative species richness as an indicator and assume a higher species richness in perennial than annual cultivation systems. This thesis includes a critical review of these characterisation factors, drawing on the results of the meta-analysis comparison of species richness in annual arable crops and perennial rhizomatous grasses. The meta-study did not confirm a higher number of species in perennial rhizomatous grasses than in annual arable crops. It was concluded that LCA studies on perennial cultivation systems need to be cautious in their application of the land use characterisation factors suggested in present-day impact assessment methods. Criticisms of the approach include the application of one single characterisation factor for diverse perennial cultivation systems such as WPM and miscanthus and the sole focus on species richness. In future, LCA research should focus on context-specific adjustment options for land use characterisation factors to ensure an adequate representation of biodiversity impacts in agricultural LCAs. Finally, the current focus on species richness in biodiversity impact assessment needs to be reassessed.Mehrjährige Anbausysteme werden als vielversprechende Quellen für nachhaltig produzierte Biomasse für eine europäische Bioökonomie betrachtet. Diese Systeme nutzen Ressourcen effizient und benötigen weniger Kulturmaßnahmen als einjährige Anbausysteme. Sie können zu einer verstärkten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung im Boden beitragen und auf marginalem Land angebaut werden. Miscanthus ist das meist untersuchte mehrjährige Anbausystem für die Bereitstellung lignocellulose-haltiger Biomasse in Europa. In den letzten Jahren wurden zunehmend auch mehrjährige Wildpflanzenmischungen (WPM) als alternative Systeme vorgeschlagen. Mehrjährige Anbausysteme wurden im Rahmen zahlreicher Studien bereits Nachhaltigkeitsbewertungen unterzogen. Meist wird hierfür die Methode der Ökobilanzierung (LCA) verwendet. Diese zielt auf eine ganzheitliche Darstellung der Umweltauswirkungen eines Systems ab. Dabei treten oftmals zwei Schwierigkeiten auf: Einerseits hängen die Resultate von agrarischen LCAs stark von Standort- und Management-spezifischen Charakteristika ab. Parameter wie der Biomasseertrag, die Menge der eingesetzten Düngemittel sowie des sequestrierten Kohlenstoffs variieren beträchtlich. Dies erschwert die Anwendbarkeit der LCA sowie der Nutzung der Resultate. Anderseits beschränken sich die Studien zumeist auf die Untersuchung der Treibhausgasemissionen. Durch Landnutzung bedingte Biodiversitätsauswirkungen werden oftmals vernachlässigt, wodurch die Ganzheitlichkeit des Ansatzes in Frage gestellt wird. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, die Anwendbarkeit und Ganzheitlichkeit von LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme zu fördern. Hierzu wurde das Augenmerk auf drei relevante Aspekte der Bewertung dieser Systeme gelegt: 1) Wie kann die Durchführung und Anwendung von LCA mehrjähriger Anbausystemen vereinfacht werden? 2) Welche methodischen Herangehensweisen eignen sich für die Betrachtung von Kohlenstoffsequestrierung und speicherung in LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme? 3) Welche Herangehensweisen eignen sich für die Abbildung landnutzungsbedingter Biodiversitätsauswirkungen in LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme? Um diese Fragen zu beantworten, wurde die LCA-Methode im Rahmen dreier Fallstudien auf mehrjährige Anbausysteme angewandt. Dabei wurden verschiedene Herangehensweisen zur Durchführung von Sensitivitätsanalysen und der Bewertung der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung genutzt. Zusätzlich wurden Informationen über Biodiversitätsauswirkungen mehrjähriger Anbausysteme zusammengefasst. Hierzu wurde eine Meta-Analyse durchgeführt, in welcher der Artenreichtum in ein- und mehrjährigen Anbausystemen verglichen wurde. Bedingt durch die Variabilität von Agrarsystemen kann die Erstellung einer Sachbilanz (LCI) aufwendig sein. Durch die Fokussierung auf wenige wesentliche Parameter kann die Durchführung einer LCA stark vereinfacht werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden mithilfe einer globalen Sensitivitätsanalyse die wichtigsten Parameter für die Erstellung eines Treibhausgas-Assessments des Miscanthusanbaus identifiziert: Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, Biomasseertrag, Dauer der Anbauperiode, Stickstoff- und Kaliumgabe und die Transportdistanz des Ernteguts. Basierend auf diesen Parametern wurde ein vereinfachtes Modell entwickelt. Landwirte sowie Unternehmen, die Teil von Miscanthus-basierten Wertschöpfungsketten sind, bekommen somit einen einfachen Zugang zu individuell anpassbaren LCA Resultaten. Die Bedeutung der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung für die Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung von mehrjährigen Anbausystemen wurde in dieser Arbeit detailliert analysiert. Quantität und vor allem Dauerhaftigkeit der Kohlenstoffspeicherung während des Anbaus mehrjähriger Pflanzen sind zentrale Faktoren für die Vorzüglichkeit dieser Systeme in Bezug auf die Auswirkungen auf die globale Erwärmung. Zwei Herangehensweisen zur Quantifizierung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung wurden im Rahmen zweier Fallstudien getestet ein einfaches Kohlenstoffmodell sowie eine allometrische Abschätzung. Ergänzend wurde der Umgang mit einer fraglichen Dauerhaftigkeit der Kohlenstoffspeicherung kritisch reflektiert. Die Herangehensweisen wurden im Hinblick auf ihre Eignung für die Nutzung durch LCA-Anwender verglichen. Es wurde empfohlen, allometrische Modelle für die Quantifizierung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung heranzuziehen und die resultierende Kohlenstoffmenge als zeitlich verzögerte Emission zu erfassen. Diese Kombination stellt ein handhabbares Vorgehen für die Betrachtung von Vorteilen aus der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung dar und verhindert deren Überbewertung. Etablierte Wirkungsabschätzungsmethoden (LCIA-Methoden) wie ReCiPe2016 beinhalten Charakterisierungsfaktoren (CF) für die Berücksichtigung landnutzungsbedingter Biodiversitätsauswirkungen. Diese nutzen den relativen Artenreichtum einer Landnutzung als Indikator und gehen von einem höheren Maß an Artenreichtum in mehrjährigen als in einjährigen Anbausystemen aus. In der Meta-Studie konnten für die mehrjährigen Anbausysteme keine signifikant höheren Artenzahlen nachgewiesen werden. Daher wird empfohlen, die in den etablierten LCIA-Methoden vorgeschlagenen CF für die Bewertung mehrjähriger Anbausysteme nur vorsichtig zu nutzen. Die Nutzung eines einzigen CF für diverse mehrjährige Anbausysteme wie Miscanthus und WPM sowie der starke Fokus auf den Indikator Artenreichtum stellen Defizite dar. Zukünftig sollte auf eine kontext-abhängige Anpassung der CF hingewirkt werden, um eine adäquate Darstellung der Biodiversitätsauswirkungen in agrarischen LCAs zu ermöglichen. Abgesehen hiervon sollte der Fokus auf die Verwendung des Artenreichtums als Biodiversitätsindikator überdacht werden

Life cycle assessment of perennial cultivation systems : advancing applicability and comprehensiveness

Resource-efficient perennial cultivation systems are considered promising sources of sustainably produced biomass to meet the growing demand of a future European bioeconomy. They require fewer agricultural procedures than annual systems, contribute to an increase in soil carbon sequestration and can be productive on marginal land. In Europe, the C4 grass miscanthus is the most prominent and best researched perennial crop for lignocellulosic biomass production. Recently, wild plant mixtures (WPM) have been suggested as a more diverse alternative system. Perennial cultivation systems have already been the subject of multiple sustainability assessments, with life cycle assessment (LCA) being the method most commonly used. This method aims to provide a holistic depiction of the environmental performance of a system. However, two challenges are usually encountered. First, results of agricultural LCAs very much depend on site- and management-specific characteristics. Parameters such as biomass yield, quantity of fertiliser applied and carbon sequestered can vary considerably, impairing the applicability of the method. Second, most of these studies focus on greenhouse gas emissions only. Land use impacts on biodiversity are commonly neglected, casting doubt on the comprehensiveness that LCA is trying to achieve. This thesis aims to advance the applicability and comprehensiveness of LCA of perennial cultivation systems. For this purpose, it focuses on three aspects relevant to the assessment of such systems, each of which was addressed by a dedicated research question: 1) How can the conducting and application of LCAs of perennial cultivations systems be simplified? 2) Which methodological approaches are best suited for the consideration of carbon sequestration and storage in LCAs of perennial cultivation systems? 3) How can land use impacts of perennial cultivation systems on biodiversity best be incorporated into the LCA framework? These questions were answered by applying the LCA method to perennial cultivation systems in three case studies, using specific approaches for the inclusion of sensitivity analysis and the evaluation of carbon sequestration and storage. In addition, information on the biodiversity impacts of perennial crop cultivation was collated by means of a meta-analysis which compared species richness and abundance in annual and perennial crop cultivation systems. Due to the variability of agricultural systems, the life cycle inventory phase can be quite intricate. Thus, the conducting of an LCA can be substantially simplified by focusing on a few relevant inputs and outputs only. In this thesis a global sensitivity analysis was used to identify the most important inventory parameters in the greenhouse gas assessment of miscanthus cultivation: carbon sequestration, biomass yield, length of the cultivation period, nitrogen and potassium fertiliser application, and the distance over which the harvested biomass is transported. Focusing on these inventory parameters, a simplified model was developed. It allows farmers and SME active in miscanthus-based value chains easy access to customised LCA results. This thesis includes a detailed analysis of the relevance of carbon sequestration and storage in the sustainability assessment of perennial cultivation systems. It was found that the quantity and in particular the permanence of carbon sequestered through the cultivation of perennial crops are critical for their favourability in terms of global warming impacts. Two alternative methodological approaches for the quantification of carbon sequestered were tested within two of the case studies a simple carbon model and an allometric approach. In addition, the handling of the uncertain permanence of the carbon storage was reflected upon. The approaches were compared with regard to their suitability for use by typical LCA practitioners. It was concluded that allometric models should be used for the quantification of carbon sequestered and the corresponding amount accounted for as delayed emissions. This combination provides a manageable approach for the accounting of benefits from carbon sequestration and storage, and also prevents their overestimation. Established impact assessment methods such as ReCiPe2016 suggest characterisation factors for the incorporation of land use impacts on biodiversity into LCA. These factors use relative species richness as an indicator and assume a higher species richness in perennial than annual cultivation systems. This thesis includes a critical review of these characterisation factors, drawing on the results of the meta-analysis comparison of species richness in annual arable crops and perennial rhizomatous grasses. The meta-study did not confirm a higher number of species in perennial rhizomatous grasses than in annual arable crops. It was concluded that LCA studies on perennial cultivation systems need to be cautious in their application of the land use characterisation factors suggested in present-day impact assessment methods. Criticisms of the approach include the application of one single characterisation factor for diverse perennial cultivation systems such as WPM and miscanthus and the sole focus on species richness. In future, LCA research should focus on context-specific adjustment options for land use characterisation factors to ensure an adequate representation of biodiversity impacts in agricultural LCAs. Finally, the current focus on species richness in biodiversity impact assessment needs to be reassessed.Mehrjährige Anbausysteme werden als vielversprechende Quellen für nachhaltig produzierte Biomasse für eine europäische Bioökonomie betrachtet. Diese Systeme nutzen Ressourcen effizient und benötigen weniger Kulturmaßnahmen als einjährige Anbausysteme. Sie können zu einer verstärkten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung im Boden beitragen und auf marginalem Land angebaut werden. Miscanthus ist das meist untersuchte mehrjährige Anbausystem für die Bereitstellung lignocellulose-haltiger Biomasse in Europa. In den letzten Jahren wurden zunehmend auch mehrjährige Wildpflanzenmischungen (WPM) als alternative Systeme vorgeschlagen. Mehrjährige Anbausysteme wurden im Rahmen zahlreicher Studien bereits Nachhaltigkeitsbewertungen unterzogen. Meist wird hierfür die Methode der Ökobilanzierung (LCA) verwendet. Diese zielt auf eine ganzheitliche Darstellung der Umweltauswirkungen eines Systems ab. Dabei treten oftmals zwei Schwierigkeiten auf: Einerseits hängen die Resultate von agrarischen LCAs stark von Standort- und Management-spezifischen Charakteristika ab. Parameter wie der Biomasseertrag, die Menge der eingesetzten Düngemittel sowie des sequestrierten Kohlenstoffs variieren beträchtlich. Dies erschwert die Anwendbarkeit der LCA sowie der Nutzung der Resultate. Anderseits beschränken sich die Studien zumeist auf die Untersuchung der Treibhausgasemissionen. Durch Landnutzung bedingte Biodiversitätsauswirkungen werden oftmals vernachlässigt, wodurch die Ganzheitlichkeit des Ansatzes in Frage gestellt wird. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, die Anwendbarkeit und Ganzheitlichkeit von LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme zu fördern. Hierzu wurde das Augenmerk auf drei relevante Aspekte der Bewertung dieser Systeme gelegt: 1) Wie kann die Durchführung und Anwendung von LCA mehrjähriger Anbausystemen vereinfacht werden? 2) Welche methodischen Herangehensweisen eignen sich für die Betrachtung von Kohlenstoffsequestrierung und speicherung in LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme? 3) Welche Herangehensweisen eignen sich für die Abbildung landnutzungsbedingter Biodiversitätsauswirkungen in LCAs mehrjähriger Anbausysteme? Um diese Fragen zu beantworten, wurde die LCA-Methode im Rahmen dreier Fallstudien auf mehrjährige Anbausysteme angewandt. Dabei wurden verschiedene Herangehensweisen zur Durchführung von Sensitivitätsanalysen und der Bewertung der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung genutzt. Zusätzlich wurden Informationen über Biodiversitätsauswirkungen mehrjähriger Anbausysteme zusammengefasst. Hierzu wurde eine Meta-Analyse durchgeführt, in welcher der Artenreichtum in ein- und mehrjährigen Anbausystemen verglichen wurde. Bedingt durch die Variabilität von Agrarsystemen kann die Erstellung einer Sachbilanz (LCI) aufwendig sein. Durch die Fokussierung auf wenige wesentliche Parameter kann die Durchführung einer LCA stark vereinfacht werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden mithilfe einer globalen Sensitivitätsanalyse die wichtigsten Parameter für die Erstellung eines Treibhausgas-Assessments des Miscanthusanbaus identifiziert: Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, Biomasseertrag, Dauer der Anbauperiode, Stickstoff- und Kaliumgabe und die Transportdistanz des Ernteguts. Basierend auf diesen Parametern wurde ein vereinfachtes Modell entwickelt. Landwirte sowie Unternehmen, die Teil von Miscanthus-basierten Wertschöpfungsketten sind, bekommen somit einen einfachen Zugang zu individuell anpassbaren LCA Resultaten. Die Bedeutung der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung für die Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung von mehrjährigen Anbausystemen wurde in dieser Arbeit detailliert analysiert. Quantität und vor allem Dauerhaftigkeit der Kohlenstoffspeicherung während des Anbaus mehrjähriger Pflanzen sind zentrale Faktoren für die Vorzüglichkeit dieser Systeme in Bezug auf die Auswirkungen auf die globale Erwärmung. Zwei Herangehensweisen zur Quantifizierung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung wurden im Rahmen zweier Fallstudien getestet ein einfaches Kohlenstoffmodell sowie eine allometrische Abschätzung. Ergänzend wurde der Umgang mit einer fraglichen Dauerhaftigkeit der Kohlenstoffspeicherung kritisch reflektiert. Die Herangehensweisen wurden im Hinblick auf ihre Eignung für die Nutzung durch LCA-Anwender verglichen. Es wurde empfohlen, allometrische Modelle für die Quantifizierung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung heranzuziehen und die resultierende Kohlenstoffmenge als zeitlich verzögerte Emission zu erfassen. Diese Kombination stellt ein handhabbares Vorgehen für die Betrachtung von Vorteilen aus der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung dar und verhindert deren Überbewertung. Etablierte Wirkungsabschätzungsmethoden (LCIA-Methoden) wie ReCiPe2016 beinhalten Charakterisierungsfaktoren (CF) für die Berücksichtigung landnutzungsbedingter Biodiversitätsauswirkungen. Diese nutzen den relativen Artenreichtum einer Landnutzung als Indikator und gehen von einem höheren Maß an Artenreichtum in mehrjährigen als in einjährigen Anbausystemen aus. In der Meta-Studie konnten für die mehrjährigen Anbausysteme keine signifikant höheren Artenzahlen nachgewiesen werden. Daher wird empfohlen, die in den etablierten LCIA-Methoden vorgeschlagenen CF für die Bewertung mehrjähriger Anbausysteme nur vorsichtig zu nutzen. Die Nutzung eines einzigen CF für diverse mehrjährige Anbausysteme wie Miscanthus und WPM sowie der starke Fokus auf den Indikator Artenreichtum stellen Defizite dar. Zukünftig sollte auf eine kontext-abhängige Anpassung der CF hingewirkt werden, um eine adäquate Darstellung der Biodiversitätsauswirkungen in agrarischen LCAs zu ermöglichen. Abgesehen hiervon sollte der Fokus auf die Verwendung des Artenreichtums als Biodiversitätsindikator überdacht werden

Perennial rhizomatous grasses: Can they really increase species richness and abundance in arable land?—A meta-analysis

AbstractPerennial rhizomatous grasses (PRG), such as miscanthus and switchgrass, are considered promising lignocellulosic feedstocks. Their cultivation is expected to experience a significant increase in the near future, as it offers a wide range of benefits. For instance, when PRG replace typical annual crops, positive biodiversity impacts are usually anticipated. However, to date, there is no solid, statistically strong evidence for this hypothesis. This study aims to evaluate its validity through a meta‐analysis based on an extensive systematic literature review of research comparing biodiversity attributes in PRG and common annual crops. Dynamics of species richness and abundance in response to PRG cultivation were quantitatively evaluated drawing on 220 paired comparisons from 25 studies. This includes data on five taxonomic groups—arthropods, birds, earthworms, mammals and plants—and three PRG—miscanthus, switchgrass and reed canary grass. The results indicate that biodiversity tends to be higher in PRG cultivations relative to the reference crops, but the initial hypothesis of significantly beneficial impacts could not be confirmed. Trends were specific to the individual taxonomic groups: significantly higher biodiversity was found for plants and small mammals. Positive but insignificant trends were observed for arthropods and birds, while earthworm response was neutral and insignificant. More substantial conclusions could not be drawn, which is mainly due to the low number of studies conducting biodiversity assessments in PRG cultivations that included a comparison with annual crops. In addition, a detailed analysis of the observed responses was impaired by poor reporting of the parameters influencing biodiversity in the studies reviewed, such as planting and crop density, as well as yields. For this reason, we conclude with a call for improved data reporting in biodiversity assessments of PRG cultivations and detail requirements for future biodiversity research

Tailored antiplatelet therapy can overcome clopidogrel and aspirin resistance - The BOchum CLopidogrel and Aspirin Plan (BOCLA-Plan) to improve antiplatelet therapy

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Dual antiplatelet therapy using acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin) and clopidogrel is of great importance following coronary stenting. However, the variable platelet inhibitory effectiveness compromises the antithrombotic advantages provided by dual antiplatelet therapy. The aim of this single-center prospective study was to reduce the low response incidence of dual antiplatelet therapy with ASA and clopidogrel according to a prespecified therapy algorithm.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Platelet function testing using whole blood aggregometry (Chronolog 590) was performed 48 hours following coronary stenting (for either acute coronary syndromes or stable coronary artery disease) on 504 patients. The antiplatelet therapy included a loading dose of 600 mg clopidogrel and 500 mg ASA, followed by 75 mg clopidogrel and 100 mg ASA once daily. Clopidogrel low responders (CLR: >5 ohm; adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 5 μM) and/or ASA low responders (ALR: >0 ohm; arachidonic acid 10 μM) were treated according to a structured therapy plan: in the case of CLR, the maintenance + dose was doubled (repeated loading dose followed by 150 mg daily), and when still ineffective ticlopidine or prasugrel, if available and not contraindicated, were used. ALR was treated by increasing the dose to 300 mg in a first step or to 500 mg ASA when the first modification did not take effect sufficiently. In addition, ADP receptor antagonist 2-methylthioadenosine 5'-monophosphate triethylammonium salt (MeSAMP) testing and ASA incubation were performed to rule out either a platelet ADP-receptor defect or an ASA pharmacokinetic resistance.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Of the total cohort of 504 patients, we detected 30.8% clopidogrel low-responders and 19.4% aspirin low-responders. For ALR, with a dose adjustment of 300 mg ASA daily, 94.6% of ALR were effectively treated and the residual 5.4% by administration of daily dosages of 500 mg ASA. This means that after modification of the ASA maintenance dose, all initial ALRs had an adequate antiplatelet response.</p> <p>The results for clopidogrel revealed that 69% of the CLR were treated effectively by increasing the clopidogrel dose to 150 mg daily. When prasugrel was not available or contraindicated, 12.7% of the remaining low responders showed an adequate result after being switched to ticlopidine. Consequently, by applying the therapy algorithm, we were able to reduce the CLR prevalence by 86.6%. On including prasugrel in the therapy plan, we were finally able to eliminate thienopyridine low response. In addition, no ADP receptor defect was found in this study as a potential reason for CLR.</p> <p>We identified the following factors associated with both CLR and ALR status: acute coronary syndromes, positive troponin values as well as diabetes mellitus and elevated HbA_1Cvalues and a higher platelet count. Furthermore, our data revealed for CLR elevated C-reactive protein values and a high PREDICT-score (including an age >65 years, acute coronary syndrome, diabetes mellitus, renal failure, and reduced left ventricular function) as risk factors. The following factors correlated with the risk of ASA low response: patients with elevated hemoglobin, serum creatinine and C-reactive protein values. In addition, medication with nitrates reduced the risk of being CLR. As also holds true for CLR, we found the PREDICT-score to be correlated to the risk of being ALR. However, by far the strongest risk factor for CLR or ALR was the fact of dual resistance.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Following a structured therapy plan based on a "test and treat" strategy, the prevalence of clopidogrel or aspirin low response can be significantly reduced and the risk of inadequate dual antiplatelet therapy minimized.</p> <p>Trial Registration</p> <p><a href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01212302">NCT01212302</a> (Clinicaltrials.gov)</p

Prospects of Bioenergy Cropping Systems for A More Social-Ecologically Sound Bioeconomy

The growing bioeconomy will require a greater supply of biomass in the future for both bioenergy and bio-based products. Today, many bioenergy cropping systems (BCS) are suboptimal due to either social-ecological threats or technical limitations. In addition, the competition for land between bioenergy-crop cultivation, food-crop cultivation, and biodiversity conservation is expected to increase as a result of both continuous world population growth and expected severe climate change effects. This study investigates how BCS can become more social-ecologically sustainable in future. It brings together expert opinions from the fields of agronomy, economics, meteorology, and geography. Potential solutions to the following five main requirements for a more holistically sustainable supply of biomass are summarized: (i) bioenergy-crop cultivation should provide a beneficial social-ecological contribution, such as an increase in both biodiversity and landscape aesthetics, (ii) bioenergy crops should be cultivated on marginal agricultural land so as not to compete with food-crop production, (iii) BCS need to be resilient in the face of projected severe climate change effects, (iv) BCS should foster rural development and support the vast number of small-scale family farmers, managing about 80% of agricultural land and natural resources globally, and (v) bioenergy-crop cultivation must be planned and implemented systematically, using holistic approaches. Further research activities and policy incentives should not only consider the economic potential of bioenergy-crop cultivation, but also aspects of biodiversity, soil fertility, and climate change adaptation specific to site conditions and the given social context. This will help to adapt existing agricultural systems in a changing world and foster the development of a more social-ecologically sustainable bioeconomy

Comparative LCA studies of simulated HMF biorefineries from maize and miscanthus as an example of first‐ and second‐generation biomass as a tool for process development

Abstract 5‐Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is a versatile platform chemical for a fossil free, bio‐based chemical industry. HMF can be produced by using fructose as a feedstock. Using edible, first‐generation biomass to produce chemicals has been questioned in terms of potential competition with food supply. Second‐generation biomass like miscanthus could be an alternative. However, there is a lack of information if second‐generation lignocellulosic biomass is a more sustainable feedstock to produce HMF. Therefore, a life cycle assessment was performed in this study to determine the environmental impacts of HMF production from miscanthus and to compare it with HMF from high‐fructose corn syrup (HFCS). HFCS from either Hungary or Baden‐Württemberg (Germany) was considered. Compared to the HFCS biorefineries the miscanthus concept is producing less emissions in all impact categories studied, except land occupation. Overall, the production and usage of second‐generation biomass could be especially beneficial in areas where the use of N fertilizers is restricted. Besides, conclusions for the further development of the on‐farm biorefinery concept were elaborated. For this purpose, process simulations from a previous study were used. Results of the previous study in terms of TEA and the current LCA study in terms of environmental sustainability indicate that the lignin depolymerization unit in the miscanthus biorefinery has to be improved. The scenario without lignin depolymerization performs better in all impact categories. The authors recommend to not further convert the lignin to products like phenol and other aromatic compounds. The results of the contribution analyses show that the major impact in the HMF production is caused by the auxiliary materials in the separation units and the required heat. Further technical development should focus on efficient heat as well as solvent use and solvent recovery. At this point further optimizations will lead to reduced emissions and costs at the same time

Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from miscanthus : A comparison of production pathways at two European sites

Lignocellulosic ethanol represents a renewable alternative to petrol. Miscanthus, a perennial plant that grows on marginal land, is characterized by efficient use of resources and is considered a promising source of lignocellulosic biomass. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to determine the environmental impacts of ethanol production from miscanthus grown on marginal land in Great Britain (Aberystwyth) and an average-yield site in Germany (Stuttgart; functional unit: 1 GJ). As the conversion process has substantial influence on the overall environmental performance, the comparison examined three pretreatment options for miscanthus. Overall, results indicate lower impacts for the production in Stuttgart in comparison with the corresponding pathways in Aberystwyth across the analysed categories. Disparities between the sites were mainly attributed to differences in biomass yield. When comparing the conversion options, liquid hot water treatment resulted in the lowest impacts, followed by dilute sulphuric acid. Dilute sodium hydroxide pretreatment represented the least favourable option. Site-dependent variation in biomass composition and degradability did not have substantial influence on the environmental performance of the analysed pathways. Additionally, implications of replacing petrol with miscanthus ethanol were examined. Ethanol derived from miscanthus resulted in lower impacts with respect to greenhouse gas emissions, fossil resource depletion, natural land transformation and ozone depletion. However, for other categories, including toxicity, eutrophication and agricultural land occupation, net scores were substantially higher than for the fossil reference. Nevertheless, the results indicate that miscanthus ethanol produced via dilute acid and liquid hot water treatment at the site in Stuttgart has the potential to comply with the requirements of the European Renewable energy directive for greenhouse gas emission reduction. For ethanol production at the marginal site, carbon sequestration needs to be considered in order to meet the requirements for greenhouse gas mitigation.</p

Assessing biodiversity potential of arable farms – A conceptual approach

AbstractBiodiversity loss is a global problem, with agriculture being a major driver. Every agricultural operation, including management, has an impact on biodiversity because it interferes with nature. It is challenging to assess these impacts. Correspondingly, it can be difficult to support farmers to work in a more biodiversity-friendly way. This paper presents a conceptual framework for farmers to predictively assess their biodiversity potential and compare it over several years. On the one hand, parameters at field level (“on-crop”) are taken into account and, on the other hand, the landscape level (“off-crop”) with corresponding parameters is also included. The simple application and the easy integration in field record systems through data already collected by the farmer allows widespread use.In conclusion, the framework is a recommendation for biodiversity assessment. It should be further developed and validated so that new scientific findings can be incorporated into the assessment of biodiversity in order to be able to calculate and predict it even more accurately

Social Aspects in the Assessment of Biobased Value Chains

Social Life-Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) is under continuous development. The Methodological Sheets for Subcategories in S-LCA are a set of guidelines commonly used for the performance of such assessments. They cover a variety of stakeholders and subcategories for the social assessment of products in general. However, they may not necessarily be appropriate for the assessment of biobased value chains of agricultural and forestry origin. The aim of this study is the identification of social aspects relevant for the assessment of biobased value chains across various regions of the world, including those aspects possibly overlooked in the Methodological Sheets for Subcategories in S-LCA. For this purpose, a literature review of empirical studies was performed using the sheets as a reference. The results show that the Methodological Sheets for Subcategories in S-LCA provide good coverage of social topics relevant for biobased value chains, but that the stakeholders &ldquo;smallholder&rdquo; and &ldquo;family farm&rdquo; are not adequately addressed. Drawing on the empirical literature reviewed, the study emphasizes the relevance of these stakeholders in the analysis of biobased value chains of agricultural and forestry origin, and proposes criteria for consideration in the assessment of this stakeholder

The True Costs and Benefits of Miscanthus Cultivation

Agroecosystems provide numerous ecosystem services (ESs) such as provisioning, regulating, habitat and cultural services. At the same time, the management of these agroecosystems can cause various negative impacts on the environment such as the generation of greenhouse gas emissions. However, the way humans manage agroecosystems often focuses only on the production of agricultural goods, which yield monetary benefits in the short term but do not include the positive and negative external effects on ESs. In order to enable a holistic assessment of the economic and environmental costs and benefits, the current study combines the production costs, the monetary value of the ESs provided and the monetization of the environmental impacts caused by the management of agroecosystems using the perennial crop miscanthus as an example. Depending on the scenario assessed, the cultivation of miscanthus leads to a net benefit of 140 to 3051 EUR ha−1 yr−1. The monetary value of the ESs provided by the miscanthus cultivation thereby considerably outweighs the internal and external costs. The approach applied allows for a holistic assessment of the benefits and costs of agroecosystems and thus enables management decisions that are not only based on the biomass yield but include the various interactions with the environment