The effect of reciprocity priming on organ donor registration intentions and behavior

Background: Internationally the demand for organ transplants far exceeds the available supply of donated organs. Purpose: We examine if a digital reciprocity prime based on reciprocal altruism can be used to increase organ donor registration intentions and behavior. Methods: 420 participants (223 females) from England and Scotland aged 18+ who were not currently registered organ donors were randomized by block allocation using a 1:1 ratio to receive either a reciprocity prime or control message. After manipulation, they were asked to indicate their organ donation intentions and whether or not they would like to be taken to an organ donation registration and information page. Results: In line with our previous work, participants primed with a reciprocity statement reported greater intent to register as an organ donor than controls (using a 7-point Likert scale where higher scores = greater intention; prime mean = 4.3 (1.6) vs. control mean = 3.7 (1.4), P =< .001, d =0.4 [95%CI = 0.21-0.59]). There was again however, no effect on behavior as rates of participants agreeing to receive the donation register web-link were comparable between those primed at 11% (n= 23/210) [95%CI = 7.4-16.0] and controls at 12% (n= 25/210) [95%CI = 8.1-17.1], X²(1) = 0.09, p = .759. Conclusions: Reciprocal altruism appears useful for increasing intention towards joining the organ donation register. It does not however appear to increase organ donor behavior

If you needed an organ transplant would you have one? The effect of reciprocity priming and mode of delivery on organ donor registration intentions and behaviour

Objective: There are approximately 6,500 people on the UK national transplant waiting list, around 400 of whom die every year. Only 35% of the UK population are currently on the organ donation register. We report 2 studies examining whether a reciprocity prime, in which participants were asked whether they would accept a donated organ, increased organ donation intentions and behaviour.  Design: Between participants, randomized-controlled design.  Methods: In 2 studies, participants who were not currently registered organ donors took part either face-to-face or online, and were randomly allocated to a reciprocity prime or control condition. Following the manipulation they were asked to indicate, on either a paper or online questionnaire, their intention to join the organ donor register. Study 2 was similar to Study 1 but with the addition that after reporting intention, participants were then offered an organ donation information leaflet or the opportunity to click a link for further information (proxy behavioural measure).  Results: In both studies, reciprocity primed participants reported greater intentions to register than controls. However, in Study 2, no effect on donation behaviour was found.  Conclusions: Reciprocal altruism may be a useful tool in increasing intentions to join the organ donor register. Further evaluation is required to determine whether this increase in intention can be translated into organ donation behaviour

Childhood self-control predicts smoking throughout life: Evidence from 21,000 cohort study participants

Objective: Low self-control has been linked with smoking, yet it remains unclear whether childhood self-control underlies the emergence of lifetime smoking patterns. We examined the contribution of childhood self-control to early smoking initiation and smoking across adulthood.&nbsp; Methods: 21,132 participants were drawn from two nationally-representative cohort studies; the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS) and the 1958 National Child Development Study (NCDS). Child self-control was teacher-rated at age 10 in the BCS and at ages 7 and 11 in the NCDS. Participants reported their smoking status and number of cigarettes smoked per day at five time-points in the BCS (ages 26&ndash;42) and six time-points in the NCDS (ages 23&ndash;55). Both studies controlled for socioeconomic background, cognitive ability, psychological distress, gender, and parental smoking; the NCDS also controlled for an extended set of background characteristics.&nbsp; Results: Early self-control made a substantial graded contribution to (not) smoking throughout life. In adjusted regression models, a 1-SD increase in self-control predicted a 6.9 percentage point lower probability of smoking in the BCS and this was replicated in the NCDS (5.2 point reduced risk). Adolescent smoking explained over half of the association between self-control and adult smoking. Childhood self-control was positively related to smoking cessation and negatively related to smoking initiation, relapse to smoking, and the number of cigarettes smoked in adulthood.&nbsp; Conclusions: This study provides strong evidence that low childhood self-control predicts an increased risk of smoking throughout adulthood and points to adolescent smoking as a key pathway through which this may occu

The social norms of suicidal and self-harming behaviours in Scottish adolescents

Although the suicidal and self-harming behaviour of individuals is often associated with similar behaviours in people they know, little is known about the impact of perceived social norms on those behaviours. In a range of other behavioural domains (e.g., alcohol consumption, smoking, eating behaviours) perceived social norms have been found to strongly predict individuals’ engagement in those behaviours, although discrepancies often exist between perceived and reported norms. Interventions which align perceived norms more closely with reported norms have been effective in reducing damaging behaviours. The current study aimed to explore whether the Social Norms Approach is applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviours in adolescents. Participants were 456 pupils from five Scottish high-schools (53% female, mean age = 14.98 years), who completed anonymous, cross-sectional surveys examining reported and perceived norms around suicidal and self-harming behaviour. Friedman’s ANOVA with post-hocWilcoxen signed-ranks tests indicated that proximal groups were perceived as less likely to engage in or be permissive of suicidal and self-harming behaviours than participants’ reported themselves, whilst distal groups tended towards being perceived as more likely to do so. Binary logistic regression analyses identified a number of perceived norms associated with reported norms, with close friends’ norms positively associated with all outcome variables. The Social Norms Approach may be applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviour, but associations between perceived and reported norms and predictors of reported norms differ to those found in other behavioural domains. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are considered

Theory Content, Question-Behavior Effects, or Form of Delivery Effects for Intention to Become an Organ Donor? Two Randomized Trials

Eliciting different attitudes with survey questionnaires may impact on intention to donate organs. Previous research used varying numbers of questionnaire items, or different modes of intervention delivery, when comparing groups. We aimed to determine whether intention to donate organs differed among groups exposed to different theoretical content, but similar questionnaire length, in different countries. We tested the effect of excluding affective attitudinal items on intention to donate, using constant item numbers in two modes of intervention delivery. Study 1: A multi-country, interviewer-led, cross-sectional randomized trial recruited 1007 participants, who completed questionnaires as per group assignment: including all affective attitude items, affective attitude items replaced, negatively-worded affective attitude items replaced. Study 2 recruited a UK-representative, cross-sectional sample of 616 participants using an online methodology, randomly assigned to the same conditions. Multilevel models assessed effects of group membership on outcomes: intention to donate (primary), taking a donor card, following a web-link (secondary). In study 1, intention to donate did not differ among groups. Study 2 found a small, significantly higher intention to donate in the negatively-worded affective attitudes replaced group. Combining data yielded no group differences. No differences were seen for secondary outcomes. Ancillary analyses suggest significant interviewer effects. Contrary to previous research, theoretical content may be less relevant than number or valence of questionnaire items, or form of intervention delivery, for increasing intention to donate organs

Evaluating the selection, training, and support of peer support workers in the United Kingdom

This article describes the preparation, selection, training, and support of a group of people with lived experience of mental distress/illness and mental health service use to work as peer support workers (PSWs). The PSWs were recruited to provide support alongside conventional aftercare to service users discharged from acute psychiatric units in London, England. Training was delivered over 12 weekly, 1-day sessions from April to July 2010. Supervision and support were provided by a peer support coordinator and a training facilitator. The overall view of the training by those who went on to work as PSWs was that it was a valuable, challenging, yet positive experience that provided them with a good preparation for the role. A key area for improvement concerned the strength of emotional involvement and feelings PSWs had for their peers, especially in regard to ending the support relationship. Skilled, sensitive supervision and support is essential for the success of such roles

The Associations Between Children's and Adolescents’ Suicidal and Self-Harming Behaviors, and Related Behaviors Within Their Social Networks: A Systematic Review

© 2017, Copyright © International Academy for Suicide Research.Social influences—including the suicidal and self-harming behaviors of others—have been highlighted as a risk factor for suicidal and self-harming behavior in young people, but synthesis of the evidence is lacking. A systematic review of 86 relevant papers was conducted. Considerable published evidence was obtained for positive associations between young people's suicidal and self-harming behavior and that of people they know, with those reporting knowing people who had engaged in suicidal or self-harming behaviors more likely to report engaging in similar behaviors themselves. Findings are discussed in relation to a number of methodological and measurement issues—including the role of normative perceptions—and implications for the prevention of suicidal and self-harming behavior are considered

Holding blame at bay? ‘Gene talk’ in family members’ accounts of schizophrenia aetiology

We provide the first detailed analysis of how, for what purposes and with what consequences people related to someone with a diagnosis of schizophrenia use ‘gene talk'. The article analyses findings from a qualitative interview study conducted in London and involving 19 participants (mostly women). We transcribed the interviews verbatim and analysed them using grounded theory methods. We analyse how and for what purposes participants mobilized ‘gene talk' in their affectively freighted encounter with an unknown interviewer. Gene talk served to (re)position blame and guilt, and was simultaneously used imaginatively to forge family history narratives. Family members used ‘gene talk' to recruit forebears with no psychiatric diagnosis into a family history of mental illness, and presented the origins of the diagnosed family member's schizophrenia as lying temporally before, and hence beyond the agency of the immediate family. Gene talk was also used in attempts to dislodge the distressing figure of the schizophrenia-inducing mother. ‘Gene talk', however, ultimately displaced, rather than resolved, the (self-)blame of many family members, particularly mothers. Our article challenges the commonly expressed view that genetic accounts will absolve family members' sense of (self-)blame in relation to their relative's/relatives' diagnosis

The social norms of suicidal and self-harming behaviours

Background and Aims The current thesis explored whether the social norms approach might be applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviours (SSHBs). A thorough literature review and three empirical studies were conducted. The review indicated that children's and adolescents' SSHBs appear to be related to SSHB in people they know, but the literature assumed accurate knowledge of others' behaviour, and individual behaviours and reference groups were not always well-defined. Study 1 A social norms survey indicated that undergraduate students tend to believe that those close to them are less likely to engage in SSHBs than they reported doing, but that more distal groups are more likely to do so. Proximal groups were also perceived as less likely to approve of SSHBs. Perceived proximal group norms tended to predict reported norms directly, while perceived distal group norms tended to show negative associations with reported norms. Study 2 Similar results were found in an adolescent social norms survey, with proximal groups perceived as less likely to engage in and approve of SSHBs, and distal groups perceived as more likely to do so. Conversely, close friends' norms were perceived similarly to distal group norms. Perceived norms again predicted reported norms, with close friends' norms showing particular importance. Study 3 The final study used qualitative methods to explore the beliefs and experiences behind undergraduates' normative perceptions. A range of knowledge, experience, judgements, and perceived causes, motivations and outcomes of SSHBs were identified, and conceptualisation was complex and often contradictory. Social desirability appeared to impact reported attitudes. Conclusions Findings suggest that the social norms approach may well be applicable to SSHB, but in different ways to behaviours previously studied. Consideration of target population, reference group and moral/ethical judgements of SSHB is imperative. Implications for the development of theory and directions for further research are discussed.Background and Aims The current thesis explored whether the social norms approach might be applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviours (SSHBs). A thorough literature review and three empirical studies were conducted. The review indicated that children's and adolescents' SSHBs appear to be related to SSHB in people they know, but the literature assumed accurate knowledge of others' behaviour, and individual behaviours and reference groups were not always well-defined. Study 1 A social norms survey indicated that undergraduate students tend to believe that those close to them are less likely to engage in SSHBs than they reported doing, but that more distal groups are more likely to do so. Proximal groups were also perceived as less likely to approve of SSHBs. Perceived proximal group norms tended to predict reported norms directly, while perceived distal group norms tended to show negative associations with reported norms. Study 2 Similar results were found in an adolescent social norms survey, with proximal groups perceived as less likely to engage in and approve of SSHBs, and distal groups perceived as more likely to do so. Conversely, close friends' norms were perceived similarly to distal group norms. Perceived norms again predicted reported norms, with close friends' norms showing particular importance. Study 3 The final study used qualitative methods to explore the beliefs and experiences behind undergraduates' normative perceptions. A range of knowledge, experience, judgements, and perceived causes, motivations and outcomes of SSHBs were identified, and conceptualisation was complex and often contradictory. Social desirability appeared to impact reported attitudes. Conclusions Findings suggest that the social norms approach may well be applicable to SSHB, but in different ways to behaviours previously studied. Consideration of target population, reference group and moral/ethical judgements of SSHB is imperative. Implications for the development of theory and directions for further research are discussed