The Changing Position of Agricultural Labourers in Villages in Rural Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, between 1981/2 and 1996

This paper looks at agricultural labourers in villages in Coimbatore district in 1981/2 and in 1996. It focuses on Chakkiliyans, the lowest status and most numerous Scheduled Caste group. It shows that while their position had barely changed over the decades prior to 1981/2, between 1981/2 and 1996 it changed dramatically, albeit less dramatically than one might have expected given all that was going on. 1981/2 to 1996 was a period in which (1)industrial and urban opportunities became available to virtually all labourers in the villages for the first time; (2)state policy became more favourable to labourers; and (3)village agriculture declined. The position of Chakkiliyans' agricultural employers weakened considerably between 1981/2 and 1996, but Chakkiliyans nevertheless found it difficult to stand up to them. This was partly because they were still getting a relatively attractive agricultural employment package in 1996, partly because they were in such a weak position in relation to alternative opportunities. Chakkiliyans found 'flexible' urban and industrial labour markets problematic because risky and available only on terms that were harsh. Moreover, housing and increased indebtedness in the villages resulted in Chakkiliyans being tied in some ways more strongly to agricultural employment in 1996 than in 1981/2. Other low caste labourers were getting urban and industrial opportunities that were likely to give them better prospects in the longer term. Chakkiliyans were not. The paper also considers the position of the two other groups of agricultural labourers in the villages in 1981/2, and their descendants in 1996. These were (1) a higher status Scheduled Caste group, Pannadis, and (2) a group of Caste Hindus. The contrast between the three 1981/2 labourer groups is illuminating, illustrating the important role played by caste and the way it operates in this context.

Landless Agricultural Labourers' Asset Strategies

SUMMARY This examination of the asset strategies of landless agricultural labourers in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, supports the view that it is not so much lack of finance as lack of incentives that limits poor people's investments. The options for landless agricultural labourers include changing patterns of consumption, labour strategies, and ‘investment’ strategies (broadly defined). Different groups make very different choices from among these options. Anti?poverty programmes in India will continue to fail as far as landless agricultural labourers are concerned until they tackle the real problems that prevent the poor from acquiring more assets. Resumé Les stratégies à l'actif des travailleurs agricoles sans propriété terrienne Cette étude des stratégies à l'actif des travailleurs agricoles dans le district de Coimdatore, Nadu Tamile, soutient la thèse que ce n'est pas tant le manque de capital que le manque d'encouragement qui limite les investissements des gens pauvres. Les options pour ces travailleurs agricoles comprennent un changement dans les habitudes de consommation, des stratégies dans le domaine de l'emploi et celles de l'investissement’. Differents groupes en viennent à faire des choix différents parmi ces options. D'après les travailleurs concernés, les programmes antipauvreté en Inde continueront à échouer jusqu'à ce qu'ils s'adressent aux problèmes réels prévenant le pauvre d'acquérir plus d'avantages. Resumen Estrategias de posesiones de los trabajadores agrícolas sin tierra El examen de las estrategias por conseguir medios, de los trabajadores agrícolas sin tierra de un distrito de Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, apoya el punto de vista de que no es tanto la falta de finaciamiento como la ausencia de incentivos, lo que limita las inversiones de los desposeídos; Las opciones de los trabajadores agrícolas sin tierra incluyen cambios en los patrones de consumo, estrategias laborales y de inversión, entendida esta ùltima en un sentido amplio. Las decisiones que toman los diversos grupos en relación a estas opciones, son muy diferentes. Los programas en contra de la pobreza en India continuarán fracasando en lo que se refiere a los trabajadores agrícolas sin tierra, en cuanto no toquen los problemas reales que impiden que los pobres adquieran más posesiones

A survey of agricultural development in the small farm areas of Kenya

This paper summarises briefly same of the principle features of agricultural development in small farm areas of Kenya since the 1920s, in an attempt to increase understanding of current inequalities between different areas by adding a historical dimension. A primary goal of the paper is to suggest a fruitful area for further research by indicating how such investigations can contribute to an understanding of the current situation. They paper puts particular emphasis on the role and activities of the Agricultural Department, the reports of which provided the most important source of material. It uses differences in the growth of marketed output from different parts of Kenya as the primary indicator of differences in development because this is the only indicator on which detailed information is readily available. The paper shows how close the marketed output of Nyanza and Central Provinces was until the mid-1950s, and how fast Central Province drew ahead after that. It also shows how concentrated the benefits of the coffee boom of the 1960s were, and how similar the more recent expansion of pyrethrum, tea and dairying appears to be in this respect. This paper highlights the more readily available information. Further work would certainly enhance our understanding of the processes through which the inequalities develop as well as predicting likely future patterns and suggesting means of broadening the development process

Social policy and labour standards: a South Indian case study

The paper documents substantial improvements in the living standards of labourers over the past 30 years in villages in the Tiruppur region, a dynamic centre of garment production in western Tamil Nadu. The improvements have been associated with state programmes and policies relating to education, subsidised food, transport and communications, et al., and the growth of rural industrialisation centred on knitwear production for export and domestic markets. There are still very few opportunities for the majority to move into employment other than low skilled manual labour however. This raises questions about the strategy based on ‘cheap labour’ that the Indian state has been pursuing in the recent period. Alternative strategies would almost certainly serve the interests of labour better than this

Dalit women becoming 'housewives: lessons from the Tiruppur region, 1981/2 to 2008/9

The paper suggests that while the decision of Dalit women to become ‘housewives’, rather than to engage in paid employment or self-employment, might be seen as a retreat into more strongly patriarchal relationships, it might equally be seen as a sign of strength in communities emerging from extreme poverty. The paper examines changes in a Dalit community in western Tamil Nadu over the 1980s, 1990s and the early 2000s to explore this issue. An increasing number of young Dalit women have become ‘housewives’ over this period. At the same time there has also been a very dramatic fall in child labour. Virtually all Dalit children are now in school. The fact that Dalit women have been withdrawing from the paid labour force has to be seen in a context in which, for women, opportunities for paid labour are still extremely limited. Opportunities for men have improved enormously; opportunities for women much less so. Women are now in a better position than they were, however, relying on the much improved incomes of men. Better sources of income need to be available to women if they are to get more independence than this

The economics of small-scale farming in lowland Machakos

Attached supplemental paper to Occasional Paper

The impact of a global value chain in South India on the rural areas in its vicinity

The expansion of garment manufacturing in Tiruppur has transformed the surrounding countryside as well as the town, both as garment manufacturing has spread into the countryside and through the knock-on effects of having a dynamic and relatively labour intensive industrial sector nearby. It has provided a valuable alternative to agriculture as agriculture has been running into problems. Many of the people previously employed in agriculture have moved into garment manufacturing and associated activities as the garment sector has expanded. There have been new opportunities for entrepreneurs as well as for labour, not only directly in garment and other manufacturing but in trade and services, transport, construction, et al. as well. The paper uses data collected in 2008/9, and in 1981/2 and 1996, in villages 20-30 km north west of Tiruppur to show how the expansion of the garment sector has changed the local rural economy, and how access to the new opportunities in the garment sector has been structured by gender, caste, and age, et al. What emerges from these data is that ‘Tiruppur’ has provided direct employment to large numbers from less well-placed households, many of whom now commute to work in Tiruppur and elsewhere. It has also pushed wages up in agriculture and other occupations, including those that are not directly related to the expansion of the garment sector. Considerably more than half of the working population is still engaged in agriculture however. Roughly half of the remainder work in the garment sector, and half in non-agricultural occupations other than garments. The paper shows that more women are now ‘housewives’ staying at home as their husbands are earning more. Labour is strongly supported by welfare measures introduced by the state – programmes such as the PDS (public distribution system) which supplies subsidised food and essential commodities, mid-day meals in school, and now also the NREGS (national rural employment guarantee scheme). All of these state interventions have had a significant effect on the local economy. Educational provision has expanded very considerably too and is now beginning to produce returns for members of the lowest social strata as well as for those that are better off. One of the worrying factors is that women still receive very substantially lower wages than men however. Caste is still also a major source of differentiation. This is all still very much a ‘low road’ path of development which may have been appropriate in a period in which soaking up surplus labour was a priority. It is no longer appropriate in the Tiruppur region now. The tightening of the labour market might be expected to lead to some upgrading of skills and productivity. It is difficult to see the shift to higher productivity happening without substantial state support of a kind that does not seem to be on the cards. Tamil Nadu is a state that is championing a private sector-led development path – as elsewhere in India, if not more so – right now

Smallholder credit in Kenya agriculture

The provision of subsidised credit for smallholders is widely supported as important means of encouraging smallholder capital formation and production, and as one of the ways of redressing the balance between smallholder agriculture and the rest of the economy. In this paper, Kenya’s experience with smallholder credit is reviewed and some of the major issues of relevance to policy in this field are examined. First, the macroeconomic issues involved in smallholder credit policy are discussed, particularly its' relationship to aggregate savings and the productivity of investment at the macro level. The case for providing smallholder credit on fully commercial terms is then reviewed, and the arguments presented in its favour are strong. The case for providing credit at subsidised rates rests on arguments of more limited application in practice, suggesting that the place of subsidised credit might be more modest than had been thought. Finally, some institutional questions are raised and some alternative approaches to those being followed at present in Kenya, are suggested