\u27Chipping at the Landmarks of our Fathers\u27: The Decline of the Testimony against Hireling Ministry in the Nineteenth Century

One of the distinctive features of Quakerism from the 1650s until the 1870s was its stance against any kind of pay for ministers, what Friends referred to as \u27hireling ministry\u27. Friends viewed a paid, authoritative pastoral ministry as contrary to Scripture, as tending toward preaching that pleased humans rather than God, as limiting the leadings of the Holy Spirit, and as generally corrupting. One of the criticisms of Orthodox by Hicksite Friends in the 1 820s was that the Orthodox were compromising this testimony by associating with clergy of other denominations in reform and humanitarian causes, and both Orthodox and Hicksite Friends in the United States invoked this tradition to discourage Friends from joining abolition societies after 1 830. Between 1 860 and 1 900, however, most Friends softened their stance. Hicksites, while eschewing paid ministry, came to view labeling other minister as \u27hirelings\u27 as being uncharitable and judgmental. American Gurneyites, swept up in a wave of revivalism in the 1 870s, came to embrace pastoral ministry as the best way of caring for converts. In the British Isles, however, equally evangelical Friends of Gurneyite sympathies, for complex reasons, while also ceasing to label other clergy as \u27hirelings\u27, after some controversy and for complex reasons, rejected the pastoral system

\u27A Protest against Protestantism\u27: Hicksite Friends and the Bible in the Nineteenth Century

Differing views of the nature and authority of Scripture were at the heart of the Hicksite Separation of 1827-1828 among American Friends. Mter the separation, the Bible became a source of conflict among Hicksites. Some Hicksite leaders feared anything that tended to diminish the authority of the Bible; other Hicksites argued for a critical view. By 1870, the liberals had the upper hand, as virtually all Hicksite Quakers came to share views of the Bible, including a sympathy for critical scholarship, that mirrored the modernist movement among Protestants

Dissolved nitrogen in the sea water of the Northeast Pacific with notes on the total carbon dioxide and the dissolved oxygen

This paper deals with a study and discussion of the distribution of dissolved nitrogen in sea water and its relation to the dissolved oxygen and the total carbon dioxide. Previous studies have been made by Buch (1), Knudsen (8, 9), Petterson (11), Jacobsen (7), Hamburg (6), Dittmar (3) and recently by Rakestraw and Emmel (13., 14). Fox (4) published data showing the variation in the concentration of dissolved nitrogen in equilibrium with the nitrogen of the atmosphere at standard pressure for different temperatures and for different concentrations of sea water. Using these data it is possible to calculate the percent of saturation of the dissolved nitrogen in sea water at a given temperature and chlorinity, the pressure of the gaseous nitrogen being equivalent to that of the gas in air at standard pressur