A Bronze Age hilltop cemetery complex: Ballon Hill, Co. Carlow

Situated towards the middle of the relatively flat expanse between the Blackstairs and Wicklow mountains to the east and the Castlecomer plateau to the west, Ballon Hill is a conical-shaped hill aligned northwest-southeast in otherwise unremarkable topography. Rising to only 130m above sea-level, the surrounding countryside elevates the hill into a topographical focal point. This low yet prominent hill appears to have attracted considerable attention in the Early Bronze Age from possibly as early as 2200 BC when it was chosen as a burial place. In the 1850s and 1860s, ' diggings 'were carried out on the hill by the then landowners to try to recover so-called ' pans ' or ' crocks ' that were reportedly being found following tree-planting and quarrying works. Three publications on these ' diggings 'appeared in the 1850s and 1860s describing the uncovering of numerous artefacts. The Ballon Hill Archaeology Project was established to bring together all this disparate information and to try to understand the place of Ballon Hill in the burial record of the Irish Bronze Age. It appears at least three burial monuments, including a burial mound and two barrow monuments, were constructed during the Early Bronze Age with numerous other burials placed over much of the hill. There is an absolute minimum of 23 pottery vessels and arguably a minimum of 38 vessels from Ballon Hill with all extant vessels dating to the Early Bronze Age

Transmission of mushroom virus X and the impact of virus infection on the transcriptomes and proteomes of different strains of Agaricus bisporus

Cultivation of Agaricus bisporus is a large horticultural industry for many countries worldwide, where a single variety is almost grown exclusively. Mushroom virus X (MVX), a complex of multiple positive-sense single stranded RNA (ss(+)RNA) viruses, is a major pathogen of typical A. bisporus crops. MVX can manifest a variety of symptoms in crops and is highly infective and difficult to eradicate once established in host mycelium. Currently our knowledge regarding the molecular response of A. bisporus fruit bodies to MVX infection is limited. In order to study the response of different A. bisporus strains with different susceptibilities to MVX, we designed a model system to evaluate the in-vitro transmission of viruses in A. bisporus hyphae over a time-course, at two crucial phases in the crop cycle. The symptom expression of MVX in these varieties and the transcriptomic and proteomic response of fruit bodies to MVX-infection were examined. Transmission studies revealed the high potential of MVX to spread to uninfected mycelium yet not into the fruit bodies of certain strains in a crop. MVX affected colour and quality of multiple fruit bodies. Gene expression is significantly altered in all strains and between times of inoculation in the crop. Genes related to stress responses displayed differential expression. Proteomic responses revealed restriction of cellular signalling and vesicle transport in infected fruit bodies. This in-depth analysis examining many factors relevant to MVX infection in different A. bisporus strains, will provide key insights into host responses for this commercially important food crop

Proteomic investigation of interhyphal interactions between strains of Agaricus bisporus

peer-reviewedHyphae of filamentous fungi undergo polar extension, bifurcation and hyphal fusion to form reticulating networks of mycelia. Hyphal fusion or anastomosis, a ubiquitous process among filamentous fungi, is a vital strategy for how fungi expand over their substrate and interact with or recognise self- and non-self hyphae of neighbouring mycelia in their environment. Morphological and genetic characterisation of anastomosis has been studied in many model fungal species, but little is known of the direct proteomic response of two interacting fungal isolates. Agaricus bisporus, the most widely cultivated edible mushroom crop worldwide, was used as an in vitro model to profile the proteomes of interacting cultures. The globally cultivated strain (A15) was paired with two distinct strains; a commercial hybrid strain and a wild isolate strain. Each co-culture presented a different interaction ranging from complete vegetative compatibility (self), lack of interactions, and antagonistic interactions. These incompatible strains are the focus of research into disease-resistance in commercial crops as the spread of intracellular pathogens, namely mycoviruses, is limited by the lack of interhyphal anastomosis. Unique proteomic responses were detected between all co-cultures. An array of cell wall modifying enzymes, plus fungal growth and morphogenesis proteins were found in significantly (P < 0.05) altered abundances. Nitrogen metabolism dominated in the intracellular proteome, with evidence of nitrogen starvation between competing, non-compatible cultures. Changes in key enzymes of A. bisporus morphogenesis were observed, particularly via increased abundance of glucanosyltransferase in competing interactions and certain chitinases in vegetative compatible interactions only. Carbohydrate-active enzyme arsenals are expanded in antagonistic interactions in A. bisporus. Pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism and genetic information processing were higher in interacting cultures, most notably during self-recognition. New insights into the differential response of interacting strains of A. bisporus will enhance our understanding of potential barriers to viral transmission through vegetative incompatibility. Our results suggest that a differential proteomic response occurs between A. bisporus at strain-level and findings from this work may guide future proteomic investigation of fungal anastomosis.Teagas

Whole Genome Sequence of the Commercially Relevant Mushroom Strain Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23

Agaricus bisporus is an extensively cultivated edible mushroom. Demand for cultivation is continuously growing and difficulties associated with breeding programs now means strains are effectively considered monoculture. While commercial growing practices are highly efficient and tightly controlled, the over-use of a single strain has led to a variety of disease outbreaks from a range of pathogens including bacteria, fungi and viruses. To address this, the Agaricus Resource Program (ARP) was set up to collect wild isolates from diverse geographical locations through a bounty-driven scheme to create a repository of wild Agaricus germplasm. One of the strains collected, Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23, has been crossed extensively with white commercial varieties leading to the generation of a novel hybrid with a dark brown pileus commonly referred to as ‘Heirloom’. Heirloom has been successfully implemented into commercial mushroom cultivation. In this study the whole genome of Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 was sequenced and assembled with Illumina and PacBio sequencing technology. The final genome was found to be 33.49 Mb in length and have significant levels of synteny to other sequenced Agaricus bisporus strains. Overall, 13,030 putative protein coding genes were located and annotated. Relative to the other A. bisporus genomes that are currently available, Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 is the largest A. bisporus strain in terms of gene number and genetic content sequenced to date. Comparative genomic analysis shows that the A. bisporus mating loci in unifactorial and unsurprisingly highly conserved between strains. The lignocellulolytic gene content of all A. bisporus strains compared is also very similar. Our results show that the pangenome structure of A. bisporus is quite diverse with between 60–70% of the total protein coding genes per strain considered as being orthologous and syntenically conserved. These analyses and the genome sequence described herein are the starting point for more detailed molecular analyses into the growth and phenotypical responses of Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 when challenged with economically important mycoviruses

Lough Gur Excavations by Seán P. Ó Ríordáin: Further Neolithic and Beaker Habitations on Knockadoon

The abstract is included in the text

Lough Gur Excavations by Seán P. Ó Ríordáin: Further Neolithic and Beaker Habitations on Knockadoon

The abstract is included in the text

A Bronze Age hilltop cemetery complex: Ballon Hill, Co. Carlow

Situated towards the middle of the relatively flat expanse between the Blackstairs and Wicklow mountains to the east and the Castlecomer plateau to the west, Ballon Hill is a conical-shaped hill aligned northwest-southeast in otherwise unremarkable topography. Rising to only 130m above sea-level, the surrounding countryside elevates the hill into a topographical focal point. This low yet prominent hill appears to have attracted considerable attention in the Early Bronze Age from possibly as early as 2200 BC when it was chosen as a burial place. In the 1850s and 1860s, ' diggings 'were carried out on the hill by the then landowners to try to recover so-called ' pans ' or ' crocks ' that were reportedly being found following tree-planting and quarrying works. Three publications on these ' diggings 'appeared in the 1850s and 1860s describing the uncovering of numerous artefacts. The Ballon Hill Archaeology Project was established to bring together all this disparate information and to try to understand the place of Ballon Hill in the burial record of the Irish Bronze Age. It appears at least three burial monuments, including a burial mound and two barrow monuments, were constructed during the Early Bronze Age with numerous other burials placed over much of the hill. There is an absolute minimum of 23 pottery vessels and arguably a minimum of 38 vessels from Ballon Hill with all extant vessels dating to the Early Bronze Age

A Bronze Age hilltop cemetery complex: Ballon Hill, Co. Carlow

Situated towards the middle of the relatively flat expanse between the Blackstairs and Wicklow mountains to the east and the Castlecomer plateau to the west, Ballon Hill is a conical-shaped hill aligned northwest-southeast in otherwise unremarkable topography. Rising to only 130m above sea-level, the surrounding countryside elevates the hill into a topographical focal point. This low yet prominent hill appears to have attracted considerable attention in the Early Bronze Age from possibly as early as 2200 BC when it was chosen as a burial place. In the 1850s and 1860s, ' diggings 'were carried out on the hill by the then landowners to try to recover so-called ' pans ' or ' crocks ' that were reportedly being found following tree-planting and quarrying works. Three publications on these ' diggings 'appeared in the 1850s and 1860s describing the uncovering of numerous artefacts. The Ballon Hill Archaeology Project was established to bring together all this disparate information and to try to understand the place of Ballon Hill in the burial record of the Irish Bronze Age. It appears at least three burial monuments, including a burial mound and two barrow monuments, were constructed during the Early Bronze Age with numerous other burials placed over much of the hill. There is an absolute minimum of 23 pottery vessels and arguably a minimum of 38 vessels from Ballon Hill with all extant vessels dating to the Early Bronze Age

Transmission of mushroom virus X and the impact of virus infection on the transcriptomes and proteomes of different strains of Agaricus bisporus

peer-reviewedCultivation of Agaricus bisporus is a large horticultural industry for many countries worldwide, where a single variety is almost grown exclusively. Mushroom virus X (MVX), a complex of multiple positive-sense single stranded RNA (ss(+)RNA) viruses, is a major pathogen of typical A. bisporus crops. MVX can manifest a variety of symptoms in crops and is highly infective and difficult to eradicate once established in host mycelium. Currently our knowledge regarding the molecular response of A. bisporus fruit bodies to MVX infection is limited. In order to study the response of different A. bisporus strains with different susceptibilities to MVX, we designed a model system to evaluate the in-vitro transmission of viruses in A. bisporus hyphae over a time-course, at two crucial phases in the crop cycle. The symptom expression of MVX in these varieties and the transcriptomic and proteomic response of fruit bodies to MVX-infection were examined. Transmission studies revealed the high potential of MVX to spread to uninfected mycelium yet not into the fruit bodies of certain strains in a crop. MVX affected colour and quality of multiple fruit bodies. Gene expression is significantly altered in all strains and between times of inoculation in the crop. Genes related to stress responses displayed differential expression. Proteomic responses revealed restriction of cellular signalling and vesicle transport in infected fruit bodies. This in-depth analysis examining many factors relevant to MVX infection in different A. bisporus strains, will provide key insights into host responses for this commercially important food crop

FISHing in fungi: Visualisation of mushroom virus X in the mycelium of Agaricus bisporus by fluorescence in situ hybridisation

Agaricus bisporus is a commercial mushroom crop susceptible to a disease caused by a complex of viruses known collectively as mushroom virus X (MVX). Symptoms of MVX include bare patches and mushroom cap discolouration (browning) in the fruiting bodies, phenotypes associated with the viruses AbV6 and AbV16, respectively. Limited understanding exists of the localisation and mobilisation of these viruses within the mycelium of A. bisporus. To this end, a non-destructive fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) method was developed for in situ targeting of AbV6 and AbV16 in A. bisporus mycelium. An MVX strain associated with the bare patch disease phenotype revealed predominantly high signal towards the growing edges of cultures when probed for AbV6, with a ‘halo-effect’ of high signal intensity around putative vacuoles. An MVX strain associated with the browning disease phenotype showed high signal intensities within reticulating networks of hyphae in a highly compartmentalised manner when probed for AbV16. Localisation of the two viruses in MVX-infected cultures appears independent, as both viruses were found in completely discrete areas of the mycelium in differential patterns. FISH detected low level presence of the two viruses, AbV6 and AbV16 in a number of cultures which had tested negative for the viruses by RT-PCR. This suggests that FISH may be more sensitive at detecting viruses at low levels than molecular methods. This study demonstrates that FISH is a powerful tool in the field of mycovirology