Mapping and linking supply- and demand-side measures in climate-smart agriculture. A review

Climate change and food security are two of humanity’s greatest challenges and are highly interlinked. On the one hand, climate change puts pressure on food security. On the other hand, farming significantly contributes to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. This calls for climate-smart agriculture—agriculture that helps to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Climate-smart agriculture measures are diverse and include emission reductions, sink enhancements, and fossil fuel offsets for mitigation. Adaptation measures include technological advancements, adaptive farming practices, and financial management. Here, we review the potentials and trade-offs of climate-smart agricultural measures by producers and consumers. Our two main findings are as follows: (1) The benefits of measures are often site-dependent and differ according to agricultural practices (e.g., fertilizer use), environmental conditions (e.g., carbon sequestration potential), or the production and consumption of specific products (e.g., rice and meat). (2) Climate-smart agricultural measures on the supply side are likely to be insufficient or ineffective if not accompanied by changes in consumer behavior, as climate-smart agriculture will affect the supply of agricultural commodities and require changes on the demand side in response. Such linkages between demand and supply require simultaneous policy and market incentives. It, therefore, requires interdisciplinary cooperation to meet the twin challenge of climate change and food security. The link to consumer behavior is often neglected in research but regarded as an essential component of climate-smart agriculture. We argue for not solely focusing research and implementation on one-sided measures but designing good, site-specific combinations of both demand- and supply-side measures to use the potential of agriculture more effectively to mitigate and adapt to climate change

Calibration of the HEG and Its Use for Verification of Real Gas Effects in High Entalpy Flows

This paper deals with the experimental possibilities, provided by the new high enthalpyh wind tunnel HEG, to study the effects of oxygen and nitrogen dissociation in experiments where this reaction occurs over a sufficiently short distance in stagnating flows. The current capability of the HEG does not cover the real gas effects of combustion in high enthalpy flows. First, the capabilitiesof the various types of experimental facilities for generating high enthalpy flows will be discussed and compared with capability achieved in the HEG. Second, the particulars of the large facility its capability to operate in tailored mode and the drawbacks of relatively large test times at high density and enthalpy will be discussed in the light of the latest calibration experiments. After the discussion of the calibration status of the HEG, samples ofaerothermodynamics tests performed in the HEG will be discussed. Someof these experiments are reconfirmations of experiments like flow over blunt bodies performed in the Australian tunnels T3 and T4 wherethe difference lies in the new instrumentation applied to the same flow problems, others are new studies of external aerothermodynamics like the experiments on shock/shock interactions. The significance of the dissociation effects in the above experiments is pointed out

Application of Standard Measurement Techniques in a High Enthalpy Impulse Facility.

The Goettinger High Enthalpy Tunnel (HEG) is presented as a sample of an impulse facility for aerothermodynamics testing. A description of the facility is given and its limitations are discussed. The particular limitations are the short testing time, the high temperature and the high pressure and the a priori unknown chemical composition of the flow. Furthermore, the high pressure and temperature combination produce a degree of contamination in the flow which has to be accounted for in the testing. Examples from various test programs in the HEG are discussed and used to demonstrate the capability of obtaining good quality pressure, heat transfer and optical data from the HEG, when the instrumentation is established in such a way that it can cope with the particulars of testing as discussed

Experimental verfication of real gas effects in high enthalphy flows

This paper deals with the possibilities to study the effects of oxygen and nitrogen dissociation in experiments where this reaction occurs over a sufficiently short distance in stagnating flows. The scope of this paper does not cover the real gas effects of combustion in high enthalphy flows. First, the capabilities of the various types of experimental facilities for generating high enthalpy flows will be discussed. Samples of aerothermodynamic tests performed in these facilities will be discussed. Some of these experiments are reconfirmations of experiments like flow over blunt bodies performed in the Australian tunnels T3 and T4 where the difference lies in the new instrumentation applied to the same flow problems, others are new studies of external aerothermodynamics like the experiments on shock/shock interactions. The significance of the dissociation effects in the above experiments is pointed out