Afghanistan : revival and redevelopment

Major redevelopment projects in Afghanistan are placing large demands on the minerals industry, which is struggling to keep pace. Clive Mitchell and Antony Benham report on the revival of the country’s industrial minerals industry

Minerals in Afghanistan : The Aynak Copper Deposit

The area around Aynak, 30 km south-south-east of Kabul in south-east Afghanistan, has been the focus of copper working since ancient times. Numerous old excavations and pits, as well as remains of smelting furnaces, have been discovered at Aynak and also nearby at Darband and Jawkhar. In 1974, Russian geologists prospected and mapped the Kabul area and rediscovered the Aynak, Darband and Jawkhar copper prospects. In 1974–1976 and again in 1978–1989, the Soviet Geological Mission conducted detailed exploration of Aynak, but this work ceased in 1989 with the withdrawal of Russian advisors, and the subsequent civil war halted any further work

Minerals in Afghanistan : gemstones of Afghanistan

Afghanistan and gemstones have been inextricably linked for 6500 years and the country remains rich in precious and semiprecious gemstone deposits (Figure 1). Lapis lazuli, mined in the Hindu Kush since the Neolithic Period, was transported along the ancient trade routes to Mesopotamia, Ur, Egypt and India. Precious gems including emeralds, ruby and sapphires (Figure 2) are mined in Afghanistan, and semi-precious lapis lazuli, tourmaline, aquamarine, kunzite, topaz, garnets, fluorite and varieties of quartz are also worked. Afghanistan is also a source of good quality mineral specimens sought by collectors. Gemstone mining in Afghanistan is typically an artisanal activity, carried out by people living in villages surrounding the mines. Tunnels are excavated and gems are extracted by hand using drills, dynamite and often high explosives recycled from ordnance. These techniques lead to much waste and damage to gems, and result in low yield. Most of the gemstones mined in Afghanistan leave the country illicitly, 90–95 % of them going to Peshawar in Pakistan where they are sorted for quality

Minerals in Afghanistan : rare-metal deposits

In Afghanistan rare metals (lithium, caesium, tantalum and niobium) occur in three main deposit types: pegmatites, mineralised springs and playa-lake sediments (Figure 1). The most potentially significant, easily extractable resources of rare metals in Afghanistan occur in mineralised springs and playas, although there is also considerable potential for exploiting hard-rock pegmatite deposits. Globally, rare metals are produced from deposits in these three settings, chiefly in Chile, Argentina, the USA and Turkey. Lithium has many uses, for example in batteries, in the glass and ceramics industry, and in high performance alloys for aircraft. Most tantalum is used to produce capacitors that are used in laptop computers, mobile phones and digital cameras. Niobium is primarily used in specialist steels although it also shares some uses with tantalum since it has almost identical chemical properties

Minerals in Afghanistan : the potential for copper

There are around 300 documented copper deposits, occurrences and showings in Afghanistan as shown in Figure 1. A variety of styles of copper mineralisation occur in rocks ranging in age from Proterozoic to Neogene. These include sediment-hosted, skarn, porphyry, and vein-hosted, as well as other types. The largest and best-known copper discovery in Afghanistan is the world-class Aynak stratabound deposit hosted within Vendian-Cambrian quartz-biotite-dolomite metasedimentary rocks 30 km south-south-east of Kabul. Soviet surveys in the 1970s and 1980s indicated resources of 240 Mt at 2.3 % Cu. However, Afghanistan has yet to be evaluated in the light of modern mineral deposit models and improved analytical methods. From a global perspective, Afghanistan is relatively under explored and the potential for further discoveries of copper and other minerals is high. A summary of the potential for copper in Afghanistan is shown in Table 1

Minerals in Afghanistan : the potential for gold

Gold has been worked in Afghanistan for centuries from many areas including Takhar province in the north and from Ghazni, Zabul, and Kandahar provinces in the south-west of the country. Currently, gold is produced almost solely by artisanal miners working the Samti Placer Deposit in Takhar Province. Gold deposits and prospects are known in rocks of Proterozoic to Neogene age. Many styles of gold mineralisation occur, in particular skarn, vein-hosted, porphyry and alluvial. Afghanistan is relatively under-explored and has not yet been evaluated in the light of modern mineral deposit models and using up-to-date sophisticated analytical methods and exploration techniques. There is significant potential for further discoveries of gold mineralisation throughout the country in a variety of styles especially porphyry Cu-Au and skarn Cu-Au

Minerals in Afghanistan : The Hajigak iron deposit

The Hajigak iron ore deposit is situated in the mountainous Bamyan province, 130 km west of the Afghanistan capital, Kabul (Figure 1). It is one of several iron deposits within this area but is the largest located to date. The ore occurs within the Herat fault zone as sub-concordant sheets and lenses within Proterozoic metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. A study in the 1960s demonstrated the mineral potential of the region, and estimated the Hajigak resource as 1.8 billion tonnes of iron ore with a concentration of approximately 62 % Fe (Table 1). This assessment ranks the Hajigak deposit as world class. The presence of coking coal nearby at Shabashak and the world-class ranking of the iron ore resource combine to make the Hajigak deposit an exceptionally favourable target for economic development

Immersive Virtual Reality for the Management of Pain in Community-Dwelling Older Adults.

Immersive virtual reality (VR) can provide a high level of engagement and distraction analgesia to address pain. However, community-based applications of this technology for older adults have not been studied. The objective of this study was to examine the applicability and effectiveness of an immersive VR intervention for pain, depression, and quality of life (QOL) in older adults. This pretest–posttest, mixed-methods design included senior center members (n = 12) with pain that interfered with daily functioning. The outcomes included the Numeric Pain Rating Scale, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®) depression scale, World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale Brief Version (WHO QOL-BREF), and open-ended questions. The VR intervention (15- to 45-min sessions, 12 sessions over 6 weeks) was well accepted with no dropouts. There was a significant decrease in pain (p =.002, d = −1.54) with no effect on depression and QOL. There were no adverse effects, and positive perceptions of VR were reported. The 6-week immersive VR intervention was applicable and effective in reducing pain intensity for community-dwelling older adults