Lifetime extension of products and Circular Economy. Applications in key sectors for the EU: household appliances and traction batteries.

L'abstract è presente nell'allegato / the abstract is in the attachmen

Ten years of scientific support for integrating circular economy requirements in the EU ecodesign directive: Overview and lessons learnt

The paper presents and analyses the REAPro Research programme led at the JRC that allowed the Commission to move from the formulation in 2011 of a general policy need to improve circularity of products through design, to the concrete implementation in 2019 of innovative and ambitious circular economy criteria in entry market European legislation. This policy innovation entailed the robust development of complementary components along the policy process, including policy agenda setting (better formulation of the policy need), policy formulation (e.g. identification of indicators to measure resource efficiency of products), and policy implementation (initiation of standardization activities). The paper looks back into 10 years of scientific support to policy and draws some conclusions concerning the needs of scientific support for policy making

How will second-use of batteries affect stocks and flows in the EU? A model for traction Li-ion batteries

Although not yet developed in Europe, second-use of traction batteries enables an extension of their lifetime and potentially improves life cycle environmental performance. Li-ion batteries (LIBs) offer the most promising chemistry for traction batteries in electric vehicles (xEVs) and for second-use. Due to the novelty of the topic and the expected increase of e-mobility in the next decades, more efforts to understand the potential consequences of second-use of batteries from different perspectives are needed. This paper develops a dynamic, parameterised Material Flow Analysis (MFA) model to estimate stocks and flows of LIBs after their removal from xEVs along the specific processes of the european value-chain. Direct reuse, second-use and recycling are included in the model and parameters make it customisable and updatable. Focusing on full and plug-in electric vehicles, LIBs and energy storage capacity flows are estimated. Stocks and flows of two embedded materials relevant for Europe were also assessed (cobalt and lithium). Results showed that second-use corresponds to a better exploitation of LIBs’ storage capacity. Meanwhile, Co and Li in-use stocks are locked in LIBs and their recovery is delayed by second-use; depending on the slower/faster development of second-use, the amount of Co available for recycling in 2030 ranges between 9% and 15% of Co demand and between 7 and 16% for Li. Uncertainty of inputs is addressed through sensitivity analysis. A variety of actors can use this MFA model to enhance knowledge of second-use of batteries in Europe and to support the effective management of LIBs along their value-chain

RMIS – Raw materials in the battery value chain

This final report provides the content for the batteries value chain and the related battery raw materials data browser for the JRC Raw Materials Information System. This content includes information and data both on primary and secondary raw materials. The main sections developed are highlighted presented in below table. The content is structured around general questions that both the general public and policy makers may have. Datasets that particularly contribute to improve the availability of data on secondary raw materials, as requested by the Circular Economy Action Plan (2015) are found in the Stocks and Flows, the Reuse sections and in each interactive chart when clicking on the representation of ‘stock’ and ‘waste’.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Evaluation of the environmental benefits of biochar addition into concrete-based composites

Biochar is a carbon by-product obtained from a termochemical conversion of biomass. Currently, biochar is generally treated in biomass landfill, representing an economic and environmental cost. Recent works focus their attention to the use of biochar as an alternative filler to produce more economic and environmental friendly composites. Some studies proved that the introduction of biochar as carbon filler can also increase mechanical [1] or electrical [2] properties. As a consequence, large scale production of composites containing biochar could have important effects both on the economic and environmental point of view. Please click on the file below for full content of the abstract

Analysing the contribution of automotive remanufacturing to the circularity of materials

Remanufacturing can boost resource efficiency, circularity of raw materials and reduce environmental impacts. Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment tools are integrated to assess the contribution of remanufacturing in reducing both consumption and impacts of primary resources for passenger cars. Results show that remanufacturing allows keeping within EU about 150,000 tonnes of materials, which is particularly relevant for Critical Raw Materials, such as rare-earth elements. Also, remanufacturing contributes in decreasing environmental impacts of vehicle's key components, as combustion engines (up to 79% of Global Warming Potential reduction). Further work will address data gaps and it will include current/innovative mobility

Information gap analysis for decision makers to move EU towards a Circular Economy for the lithium-ion battery value chain

This report aims at identifying and discussing how circular economy strategies may support the development of a sustainable battery value chain in Europe and what challenges, including data and information gaps, could hinder it. The aim is to keep product and materials value in the production loop as long as possible and avoid the use of mined Primary Raw Materials in the manufacturing phase. In order to achieve this, this report aims to assess the contribution of reuse, repurposing, remanufacturing, material substitution and recycling of Li-ion batteries to move the EU towards a Circular Economy for the Li-ion battery value chain. Myriad of raw and processed materials are used in the production of the Li-ion battery and this report will focus on the four most emblematic of them: Co, Li, Ni and natural graphite. The timeframe of the analysis starts from the past, goes through the present and looks at the future of the Li-ion battery value-chain. Preliminary conclusion of the analysis is that using the recycling of Li-ion batteries as Secondary Raw Material source and efforts to substitute specific materials are necessary and very important steps that will certainly mitigate supply issues of the incipient European Li-ion manufacturing industry. However, the availability of recycled Secondary Raw Materials is first conditioned by the access to the waste li-ion battery, which is obviously linked to the amount of li-ion battery put on the market and on how much of it is collected. Several obstacles are of political and regulatory nature, and a strong effort is required to European policy makers for removing them. The EU recycling industry should keep pursuing technological innovation to develop sustainable, scalable and flexible recycling processes able to deal with the incoming growing volumes of Li-ion battery waste and its expected uncertain chemical mix. For Electric Vehicle batteries, before recycling, the options for remanufacturing for reuse and repurposing in a second use applications are also interesting circular economy approaches capable of keeping materials and products value in the loop. However, the efficiency related to environmental, economic and safety aspects of reuse and repurposing practices is not yet properly assessed. It is of paramount importance to be able to estimate the stocks and flows of materials embedded in Li-ion batteries and quantify the present and future availability of secondary raw materials in different scenarios. A robust Material Flow Analysis model is necessary. In this report we propose a simplified Material Flow Analysis model that allows us to perform a qualitative analysis of stocks and flows of cobalt embedded in traction Li-ion batteries.JRC.C.1-Energy Storag

Sustainability Assessment of Second Life Application of Automotive Batteries (SASLAB): JRC Exploratory Research (2016-2017): Final technical report: August 2018

The fast increase of the electrified vehicles market will translate into an increase of waste batteries after their use in electrified vehicles (xEV). Once collected, batteries are usually recycled; however, their residual capacity (typically varying between 70% and 80% of the initial capacity) could be used in other applications before recycling. The interest in this topic of repurposing xEV batteries is currently high, as can be proven by numerous industrial initiatives by various types of stakeholders along the value chain of xEV batteries and by policy activities related to waste xEV batteries. SASLAB (Sustainability Assessment of Second Life Application of Automotive Batteries), an exploratory project led by JRC under its own initiative in 2016-2017, aims at assessing the sustainability of repurposing xEV batteries to be used in energy storage applications from technical, environmental and social perspectives. Information collected by stakeholders, open literature data and experimental tests for establishing the state of health of lithium-ion batteries (in particular LFP/Graphite, NMC/Graphite and LMO-NMC/Graphite based battery cells) represented the necessary background and input information for the assessment of the performances of xEV battery life cycle. Renewables (photovoltaics) firming, photovoltaics smoothing, primary frequency regulation, energy time shift and peak shaving are considered as the possible second-use stationary storage applications for analysis within SASLAB. Experimental tests were performed on both, new and aged cells. The majority of aged cells were disassembled from a battery pack of a used series production xEV. Experimental investigations aim at both, to understand better the performance of cells in second use after being dismissed from first use, and to provide input parameters for the environmental assessment model. The experimental tests are partially still ongoing and further results are expected to become available beyond the end of SASLAB project. To obtain an overview of the size of the xEV batteries flows along their life cycle, and hence to understand the potential size of repurposing activities in the future, a predictive and parametrized model was built and is ready to be updated according to new future data. The model allows to take into account also the (residual) capacity of xEV batteries and the (critical) raw materials embedded in the various type of xEV batteries. For the environmental assessment, an adapted life-cycle based method was developed and applied to different systems in order to quantify benefits/drawbacks of the adoption of repurposed xEV batteries in second-use applications. Data derived from laboratory tests and primary data concerning energy flows of the assessed applications were used as input for the environmental assessment. Under certain conditions, the assessment results depict environmental benefits related to the extension the xEV batteries’ lifetime through their second-use in the assessed applications. In the analysis, the importance of using primary data is highlighted especially concerning the energy flows of the system in combination with the characteristics of the battery used to store energy. A more comprehensive environmental assessment of repurposing options for xEV batteries will need to look at more cases (other battery chemistries, other reuse scenarios, etc.) to derive more extensive and firmer conclusions. Experimental work is being continued at the JRC and the availability of further data about the batteries' performances could allow the extension of the assessment to different types of batteries in different second-use applications. A more complete sustainability assessment of the second-use of xEV batteries that could be useful to support EU policy development will also require more efforts in the future in terms of both the social and economic assessment.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Critical Raw Materials and the Circular Economy – Background report

This report is a background document used by several European Commission services to prepare the EC report on critical raw materials and the circular economy, a commitment of the European Commission made in its Communication ‘EU action plan for the Circular Economy’. It represents a JRC contribution to the Raw Material Initiative and to the EU Circular Economy Action Plan. It combines the results of several research programmes and activities of the JRC on critical raw materials in a context of circular economy, for which a large team has contributed in terms of data and knowledge developments. Circular use of critical raw materials in the EU is analysed, also taking a sectorial perspective. The following sectors are analysed in more detail: mining waste, landfills, electric and electronic equipment, batteries, automotive, renewable energy, defence and chemicals and fertilisers. Conclusions and opportunities for further work are also presented.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

The future of road transport

A perfect storm of new technologies and new business models is transforming not only our vehicles, but everything about how we get around, and how we live our lives. The JRC report “The future of road transport - Implications of automated, connected, low-carbon and shared mobility” looks at some main enablers of the transformation of road transport, such as data governance, infrastructures, communication technologies and cybersecurity, and legislation. It discusses the potential impacts on the economy, employment and skills, energy use and emissions, the sustainability of raw materials, democracy, privacy and social fairness, as well as on the urban context. It shows how the massive changes on the horizon represent an opportunity to move towards a transport system that is more efficient, safer, less polluting and more accessible to larger parts of society than the current one centred on car ownership. However, new transport technologies, on their own, won't spontaneously make our lives better without upgrading our transport systems and policies to the 21st century. The improvement of governance and the development of innovative mobility solutions will be crucial to ensure that the future of transport is cleaner and more equitable than its car-centred present.JRC.C.4-Sustainable Transpor