Contribution to soil classification of Croatia – soil in urban, industrial and military area

U posljednje vrijeme u Hrvatskoj sve se vise istražuju tla urbanih, industrijskih i vojnih prostora. S obzirom da urbani stanovnici provode znatan dio vremena na tim tlima, njihove značajke postale su iznimno bitne pa ih je nužno poznavati i uvažavati, naročito s aspekta potencijalnog onečišćenja i mogućeg štetnog utjecaja na zdravlje ljudi i životinja. Pri tome se postavlja pitanje njihove klasifikacije, s obzirom da se do nedavno u postojećim klasifikacijskim sustavima Republike Hrvatske takvim tlima nije pridavala značajnija pozornost. Cilj ovog rada je predložiti način razvrstavanja tala u urbanim, industrijskim i vojnim prostorima, uvažavajući pri tome postojeću strukturu klasifikacije tala Hrvatske (Husnjak, 2014.). Za izradu ovoga rada korišteni su postojeći podaci istraživanja tala u urbanim, industrijskim i vojnim prostorima Republike Hrvatske, temeljem čaga su utvrđene značajke tih tala. Sva tla unutar navedenih prostora, predlaže se razvrstati u skupinu prirodnih, antropogenih ili tehnogenih i tehničkih antropogenih tala. Prirodna tla nastala su u skladu s pedogenetskim čimbenicima i procesima, dok su antropogena tla meliorirana prirodna tla isključivo u funkciji poljoprivredne proizvodnje. Ova tla bi trebalo razvrstavati prema spomenutoj klasifikaciji tala Hrvatske. Tehnogena i tehnička antropogena tla su novonastala tla isključivo zbog intenzivne tehnološke i tehničke djelatnosti čovjeka izvan poljoprivrede. Predlaže ih se razvrstati u red terestričkih tala, odnosno u razred tehnogenih ili u razred tehničkih tala. U razred tehnogenih tala, pripadaju uz tla deponija i tla flotacijskih materijala, jos dva nova tipa tla: tlo industrijskog kompleksa i tlo vojnog kompleksa. Spomenuta tla nerijetko cine tzv. ,,Brownfield" zemljišta. U razred tehnickih tala predlaze se uvrstiti pet novih tipova tala: tlo parka, tlo igrališta, tlo zona za rekreaciju, tlo stambenog okoliša i tlo prometnog okoliša. Za navedene tipove tala daju se detaljni i jasni kriteriji za njihovu podjelu na nize pedosistematske jedinice.In recent years, soils of urban industrial and military areas have been increasingly researched in Croatia. Given that urban residents spend a considerable amount of time on these soils, soil characteristics have become extremely important. It is essential to know and appreciate those soils, especially in terms of potential contamination and possible harmful effects on human and animal health. This raises the question of those soils classification considering that, until recently, such soils have not received much attention in the existing Croatian soil classification systems. The aim of this paper is to propose a method of soil classification in urban, industrial and military areas, respecting the existing structure of soil classification of Croatia (Husnjak, 2014). For the preparation of this paper, the existing soil survey data form urban areas, industrial and military complexes were used, on the basis of which the properties of these soils were determined. All soils within urban, industrial and military areas are suggested to be classified as natural or anthropogenic or technological and technical anthropogenic soils. Natural soils were formed according to pedogenetic factors and processes, while anthropogenic soils are meliorated natural soils only for the purpose of agricultural production. This soils are proposed to be classified according to the existing Croatian soil classification. Technological and technical soils are newly formed soils solely due to the intensive human activity outside of agriculture. It is proposed to classify those soils in the order of terrestrial soils, and in the classes of technogenic or technical soils. Also, in the class of technogenic soils, it is proposed to include two new soil types in addition to landfill and flotation materials: the soil of industrial complexes and the soil of military complexes. The mentioned soils often form so-called Brownfield land. Lastly, five new soil types are proposed to be included in the class of technical soils: park soils, playground soils, soils of recreation zone, residential environment soils and traffic environment soils. For these soil types, detailed and clear criteria are proposed for the separation into lower pedosystematic units

THE WORLD REFERENCE BASE FOR SOIL RESOURCES (WRB) WITH THE EXAMPLES OF ITS USE IN CROATIA

Svjetska referentna osnovica za tlo (World Reference Base for Soil Resources, WRB) je klasifikacijski sustav tla kojeg je prihvatilo Međunarodno pedološko društvo, a čija je konačna verzija završena 2006. Cilj izrade navedene klasifikacije bio je da se, kroz korelaciju nacionalnih s WRB klasifikacijom, omogući sporazumijevanje znanstvenika iz područja sistematike tla u Svijetu. Potreba za informacijama o korelaciji nacionalnih klasifikacija u odnosu na WRB, svakim danom je sve izraženija. Zbog toga se nedavno i u Hrvatskoj započelo sa sustavnim terenskim i laboratorijskim istraživanjima tala sukladno novim kriterijima i normativima prema WRB klasifikaciji. S obzirom na veliku važnost spomenute klasifikacije za širi krug znanstvenika, kojima je tloznanstvo područje od posebnog interesa, u prvom dijelu rada prikazuju se osnovne informacije o WRB-u te načela, ključ i pravila, kojih se treba pridržavati pri razvrstavanju tala. U drugom dijelu rada, daju se primjeri razvrstavanja tri karakteristična tipa tla prema važećoj klasifikaciji tala u Hrvatskoj te njihova korelacija prema WRB klasifikaciji. Na kraju se ukazuje na moguće probleme prilikom uporabe WRB klasifikacije, odnosno na uočene nedostatke pri razvrstavanju tala, te se daju prijedlozi za njezino poboljšanje.The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is a soil classification system accepted by the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS). Its final version was published in 2006. The main purpose of constructing this system was to correlate national soil classifications with the WRB, in order to make communication between scientists in the field of soil classification in the World possible. The need for informations concerning correlations of national soil classifications with the WRB is pronounced more and more every day. Because of that, systematic field and laboratory soil research, in accordance to the new criteria and regulations given by the WRB, has recently begun in Croatia. Because of the WRB´s great importance for a wide array of scientists with a special interest in soil science, basic informations about the WRB, as well as the principles, key and rules, which have to be followed when classifying soils, are presented in the first part of this article. In its second part, the examples of classification of three characteristic soil types according to the Croatian soil classification and their correlation with the WRB are shown. Some possible problems which may occur while using the WRB classification system and some flaws detected in the classification process, as well as some suggestions for improvement of the WRB, are given in the end

Soil degradation in the world and Croatia

Pod degradacijom tla podrazumijevaju se procesi koji dovode do smanjenja njegove plodnosti ili proizvodne sposobnosti te drugih korisnih uloga koje tlo ima u ekosustavu zbog ljudske aktivnosti ili prirodnih uvjeta. Tlo je izloženo procesima fizikalne, kemijske i biološke degradacije. Od fizikalnih procesa degradacije mogu se izdvojiti: gubitak plodnog tla zbog erozije vodom i vjetrom, kvarenje strukture i zbijanje tla, te dezertifikacija. Kemijski procesi degradacije tla odnose se na: ispiranje hraniva i toksičnost zbog kisele ili bazične reakcije tla (zaslanjivanje ili alkalizacija) i štetne tvari u tlu. Smanjenje sadržaja organske tvari i biološke raznolikosti tla pripadaju biološkim procesima degradacije. Svi ovi procesi, koje ponajprije uzrokuje čovjek, a manje su rezultat prirodnih uvjeta, nepovoljno se odražavaju na plodnost, produktivnost, kakvoću i zdravlje tla. U radu su detektirani uzroci i posljedice ovih degradacijskih procesa te se daju odgovarajuće smjernice za kvalitetnije gospodarenje tlom i preporučuju se mjere njegove sanacije.Soil degradation refers to processes that lead to a decrease in its fertility or production capacity and other useful roles that the soil plays in the ecosystem due to human activity or natural conditions. The soil is exposed to the processes of physical, chemical and biological degradation. From the physical processes of degradation, the following can be distinguished: loss of fertile soil due to erosion by water and wind, deterioration of the structure and soil compaction, and desertification. Chemical processes of soil degradation refer to: leaching of nutrients and toxicity due to acidic or basic soil reaction (salinization or alkalization) and harmful substances in the soil. The decrease in the organic matter content and biological diversity of the soil belong to the biological processes of degradation. All these processes, which are primarily human caused and less the result of natural conditions, adversely affect the fertility, productivity, quality and health of the soil. In the paper, the causes and consequences of these degradation processes are detected and appropriate guidelines are given for better soil management and measures for its remediation are recommended

MECHANICAL RESISTANCE OF SOIL IN THE VINEYARDS OF DIFFERENT AGES

Tijekom 2013. i 2014. godine u vinogradima Badel 1862 d.d. na rigolanom semiterestričkom tlu iz pseudogleja u Širokom Brezju provedena su istraživanja antropogenog zbijanja tla u četiri vinograda različite starosti. Mjerenja mehaničkog otpora tla obavljena su dva puta tijekom godine, a paralelno je određen i trenutni sadržaj vlage. U obje godine istraživanja u tragu i u sredini između traga kotača mehanizacije utvrđene su uglavnom manje vrijednosti mehaničkog otpora tla kod novopodignutoga vinograda u odnosu na starije nasade. Također su utvrđene pretežno veće vrijednosti mehaničkog otpora tla u tragu kotača mehanizacije u odnosu na one izmjerene u sredini između traga kotača. Tijekom istraživanja utvrđene su uglavnom veće vrijednosti trenutne vlažnosti tla u sredini između traga kotača, a razlog tome može biti u većoj infiltracijskoj sposobnosti ovog tla, koje nije bilo izloženo prohodu mehanizacije. Sa stanovišta održivog gospodarenja tlom preporuča se uporaba lakše mehanizacije i prema mogućnosti smanjivanje broja prohoda.During 2013 and 2014 in the vineyards of Badel 1862 d.d. on Antrosol in „Siroko Brezje“ studies of anthropogenic soil compaction were conducted in four vineyards of different ages. The measurements of the mechanical resistance of the soil were carried out twice a year, and in the same time the current moisture content was determined. In both years mainly lower values of the mechanical resistance of the soil were been determined in the wheel track as well as between the wheel tracks at the newly erected vineyards compared to older plantations. Mainly higher values of mechanical resistance of the soil in the wheel track relative to those measured between wheel tracks were also determined. The experiment resulted in substantially higher value of current soil moisture in the middle of the wheel track, which may be due to a greater infiltration ability of the soil, less exposed to the passage of machinery. From the standpoint of sustainable land management recommendation is to use lightweight mechanization and to reduce the number of passes

Changes of Chemical Soil Properties through Application of Different Tillage Methods

In the period from 2005 to 2009 the influence of different tillage methods and timelines on chemical properties of soil during cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine max) in crop rotation was researched at testing grounds of Križevci College of Agriculture (N: 460 01’ 12’’; E: 160 34’ 28’’). Almost all researched chemical properties of soil indicated more favourable results with the application of spring and autumn primary tillage with reduced number of secondary tillage interventions. The smallest content of total nitrogen and to plant available potassium in soil was in control method of the most intensive tillage and it was determined at the end of the research. The worst results regarding humus quantity were observed in control tillage method. The applied spring primary soil tillage had unfavourable influence on soil reaction. All tillage methods, except the autumn method of primary tillage and secondary tillage with multi-tiller after a four year period indicated less plant available phosphorus. From the perspective of sustainable management, the application of tillage methods with reduced number of secondary tillage interventions, achieved more favourable results

PARAMETERS OF ANTHROPOGENIC COMPACTION, SOIL STRUCTURE DEGRADATION AND CRUST FORMATION IN DIFFERENT TILLAGE METHODS

Istraživanja su provedena na pokušalištu Visokog gospodarskog učilišta u Križevcima (N: 46o01l12ll E:16o34l28ll). Istraživani su načini (varijante) obrade tla s manjim i većim brojem zahvata dopunske obrade uz korištenje različitih ratila s jesenskim i proljetnim rokom osnovne obrade. Na pet varijanata obrade tla uzgajani su jari usjevi u plodosmjeni: kukuruz (Zea mays L.) u 2008. godini i soja (Glycine max L.) u 2009. Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi utjecaj različitih načina i rokova obrade na antropogeno zbijanje, kvarenje strukture i opasnost od stvaranja pokorice, kako bi se mogao preporučiti najpovoljniji način i rok obrade tla. Izračunati su sljedeći fizikalni parametri: omjer disperzije (DR), omjer disperzije gline (CDR), indeks flokulacije (CFI), koeficijent pora (e), gustoća pakiranja čestica (Gp), rizik od stvaranja pokorice (R) i parametar stabilnosti strukturnih agregata (St). Najpovoljnije stanje stabilnosti strukture (St), utvrđeno je kod varijante gdje je osnovna obrada i priprema tla sjetvospremačem provedena u proljeće, dok je najnepovoljnije stanje utvrđeno kod varijante s najvećim brojem zahvata obrade (varijanta E). Najveća vrijednost ovog parametra i najmanja opasnost od zbijanja tla i erozije zabilježena je nakon uzgoja soje. Najveće vrijednosti gustoće pakiranja čestica tla (Gp) nakon berbe kukuruza bile su kod varijanata kod kojih je osnovna obrada tla provedena u jesen, a predsjetvena priprema tanjuračom i sjetvo-spremačem (varijante D i E). U obje godine istraživanja utvrđen je najmanji rizik od stvaranja pokorice (R) kod varijante s proljetnim oranjem i pripreme tla sjetvospremačem, a najveća vrijednost ovog parametra i ujedno najpovoljnije stanje bilo je nakon uzgoja soje. Temeljem navedenoga, sa stanovišta održivog gospodarenja tlom, na pseudogleju pjeskovito ilovaste teksture može se preporučiti osnovna obrada tla u proljeće i njegova priprema sjetvo-spremačem.Research was conducted at Križevci College of Agriculture (N: 46o01l12ll E:16o34l28ll). Different tillage methods (variants) were studied with a smaller and larger number of secondary tillage treatments using different tools for tilling during the autumn and spring period of primary tillage. The following crops were cultivated on five different variants of soil cultivation in crops rotation: corn (Zea mays L.) in 2008 and soybean (Glycine max L.) in 2009. The aim of the research was to determine the influence of different methods and treatment times on anthropogenic compaction, structure deformation and the risk of crust formation, in order to recommend the optimal method and time of soil tillage. The following physical parameters were calculated: dispersion ratio (DR), clay dispersion ratio (CDR), flocculant index (CFI), pore coefficient (e), particle density (Gp), risk of crust formation (R) and stability parameter of structural aggregates (St). The most favourable condition of structure stability (St) was found in the variant in which primary tillage and soil preparation with seedbed cultivator was carried out in the spring, while the most unfavourable condition was found in the variant with the largest number of treatments. The highest value of this parameter and the lowest risk of soil compaction and erosion was observed after soybean growing. The highest density values of the soil particle size (PD) after corn harvesting were in the variants where the primary tillage was carried out in autumn and preparation of the soil before sowing with discs and seedbed cultivator. In both research years, the lowest risk of crust formation (R) was determined in the variant with spring primary tillage and preparation of the soil before sowing with seedbed cultivator, and the highest value of this parameter and the most favourable condition were after soybean cultivation. From the point of sustainable soil management and based on the facts mentioned above, primary tillage, as well as its preparation with a seedbed cultivator, is recommended in the spring

Influence of Climatic Conditions on Accumulation of α-acids in Hop Clones

The influence of climatic conditions on accumulation of α-acids was determined during the six years (2001 – 2006) of stationary experiment in hop cultivar Aurora. The research results show that increasing sum of effective temperatures during the technological maturity stay in negative correlation with accumulation of α-acids in hop cones (r = - 0.39*), whereas total rainfalls stays in positive one (r = 0.46*) At the same time sum of hours of sun shining stay in not significant negative correlation with the accumulation of α-acids (r = - 0.38). The results of factorial analysis show significant positive multiple correlation between sum of effective temperatures and total rainfalls with α-acids accumulation (multiple r = 0.6232**) and at the same time show a significant positive multiple correlation between total rainfalls and sunshine hours with α-acids accumulation (multiple r = 0.5492*). However, there was a very strong negative influence of reference crop evapotranspiration during the phenological phase of hop cones formation on yield of hop cones and of α-acids (rs = - 0.75* and – 0.88*, respectively). The total rainfalls during the hop vegetation in interval of [212.1; 391.8] mm and also the sum of effective temperature in interval of [1601.74; 2000] ºC caused the α-acids accumulation in hop cones of cultivar Aurora in interval of [7.41; 12.35] % in dry matter. It is important to point out that the level of provided tillage, plant protection measures and fertilization was the same in all six experimental years, which excluded their effects on accumulation of α-acids. These results could possibly contribute in creating a model of predication of α-acids accumulation and beginning of hop harvest

Mechanical resistance of soil in the forest and grassland ecosystems

S ciljem utvrđivanja zbijenosti tla u prirodnim uvjetima na luvisolu i rendzini u šumskom i livadnom ekosustavu tijekom 2014. i 2015. godine na području Kalnika provedena su istraživanja mehaničkog otpora i trenutne vlažnosti tla. U razmatranoj 2014. godini najmanja vrijednost mehaničkog otpora tla u humusno akumulativnom A horizontu zabilježena je kod rendzina u šumskom ekosustavu tijekom sva tri mjerenja, a najveća vrijednost bila je u livadnom ekosustavu kod luvisola. Slični rezultati zabilježeni su i u narednoj godini istraživanja. Najmanja vrijednost mehaničkog otpora tla također je zabilježena tijekom sva tri mjerenja kod rendzina u šumskom ekosustavu. Međutim, statistički opravdano manja vrijednost mehaničkog otpora tla kod rendzina u šumskom ekosustavu bila je samo kod trećeg mjerenja u odnosu na sve druge istraživane varijante (p < 0,05). Tijekom istraživanja također je utvrđen prosječno veći sadržaj trenutne vlage u tlu kod rendzine u šumskom ekosustavu, a najmanja vrijednost zabilježena je kod luvisola u šumskom ekosustavu. Općenito nepovoljniji uvjeti zbijenosti tla te prosječno manje vrijednosti trenutnog sadržaja vlage u tlu zabilježeni su u klimatski nepovoljnijoj 2015. godini istraživanja. Temeljem navedenoga, može se konstatirati da su kod rendzina u odnosu na luvisol utvrđeni povoljniji uvjeti zbijenosti, kao i prosječno veći sadržaj vlage u tlu.In order to establish the level of soil compaction in natural conditions on Luvisol and Rendzina in forest and meadow ecosystem of Kalnik area research of mechanical soil resistance and current moisture content was conducted in 2014 and 2015. In 2014 the lowest value of mechanical soil resistance in humus accumulative horizon A was observed in Rendzina in the forest ecosystem in all three measurings, whereas the highest value was observed in the Luvisol of the meadow ecosystem. Similar results were observed in the following year of research. The lowest value of mechanical soil resistance was also observed in Rendzina of the forest ecosystem in all three measurings. However, statistically justifiable lower value of mechanical soil resistance of Rendzina in the forest ecosystem was observed only in the third measuring in relation to all other researched variants (p < 0,05). The research also established average higher content of current moisture in the soil for Rendzina in the forest ecosystem, whereas the lowest value was observed in Luvisol in the forest ecosystem. Less favourable conditions of soil compaction and lower average values of the current moisture content in the soil were generally observed in 2015. Based on the above stated it can be concluded that for Rendzina, in comparison with Luvisol, more favourable conditions of soil compaction were observed, as well as higher average moisture content