Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With Stress Hormones

OBJECTIVE: We assess whether socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with basal levels of cortisol and catecholamines and determine if any association between SES and these hormones can be explained (is mediated) by behavioral, social, and emotional differences across the SES gradient. METHODS: One hundred ninety-three adult subjects, including men and women and whites and African-Americans, provided 24-hour urine catecholamine samples on each of 2 days and seven saliva cortisol samples on each of 3 days beginning 1 hour after wake-up and ending 14 to 16 hours later. Values for both hormones were averaged across days to obtain basal levels. RESULTS: Lower SES (income and education) was associated with higher levels of cortisol and epinephrine and marginally higher levels of norepinephrine. These associations were independent of race, age, gender, and body mass. Low SES was also associated with a greater likelihood of smoking, of not eating breakfast, and with less diverse social networks. Further analyses provided evidence consistent with the hypothesis that these behavioral and social variables mediate the link between SES and the three stress hormones. CONCLUSIONS: Lower SES was associated in a graded fashion with higher basal levels of cortisol and catecholamines. These associations occurred independent of race, and the data were consistent with mediation by health practices and social factors.</p

Can a 15-Hour (Overnight) Urinary Catecholamine Measure Substitute for a 24-Hour Measure?

This study examined whether 15-hr and 24-hr urinary catecholamine measures show comparable associations with other physiological measures that are expected to correlate with sympathetic nervous system activity. Participants (193 healthy adults) provided 24- hr urine samples that were collected in a controlled environment (hotel), and divided into 9-hr daytime and 15-hr overnight collections. On the same day, resting blood pressure (BP) was measured, and 8 samples of salivary cortisol were collected. Catecholamine (15-hr and 24-hr) measures were correlated substantially in the entire sample, and when examined separately by sex and by race. Both 15-hr and 24-hr epinephrine (E) correlated significantly with systolic BP and cortisol; 15-hr and 24-hr norepinephrine (NE) corre- lated significantly with cortisol. Correlation coeficients for 15-hr measures were similar, but not equivalent to those for 24-hr measures. Urinary catecholamines obtained via 15- hr overnight collection approximated but were not equivalent to catecholamines obtained via 24-hr collection. Overnight collection was associated with reduced power to detect significant associations of catecholamines with criterion variables, such that use of 15-hr rather than 24-hr sampling required a relative increase in sample size of 1.32 times for E and 1.18 times for NE to detect similar effects. Researchers should weigh the costs of additional subjects to the benefit of decreased burden when choosing between the two sampling methods.</p

Association of Enjoyable Leisure Activities With Psychological and Physical Well-Being

Objective: To examine whether engaging in multiple enjoyable activities was associated with better psychological and physiological functioning. Few studies have examined the health benefits of the enjoyable activities that individuals participate in voluntarily in their free time. Method: Participants from four different studies (n = 1399 total, 74% female, age = 19–89 years) completed a self-report measure (Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test (PEAT)) assessing their participation in ten different types of leisure activities as well as measures assessing positive and negative psychosocial states. Resting blood pressure, cortisol (over 2 days), body mass index, waist circumference, and perceived physiological functioning were assessed. Results: Higher PEAT scores were associated with lower blood pressure, total cortisol, waist circumference, and body mass index, and perceptions of better physical function. These associations withstood controlling for demographic measures. The PEAT was correlated with higher levels of positive psychosocial states and lower levels of depression and negative affect. Conclusion: Enjoyable leisure activities, taken in the aggregate, are associated with psychosocial and physical measures relevant for health and well-being. Future studies should determine the extent that these behaviors in the aggregate are useful predictors of disease and other health outcomes.</p

The Life Engagement Test: Assessing Purpose in Life

This article describes a 6-item scale, the Life Engagement Test, designed to measure purpose in life, defined in terms of the extent to which a person engages in activities that are personally valued. Psychometric data are presented including information about the scale's factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant predictive validity, and norms. The data suggest that the Life Engagement Test is psychometrically sound across different gender, age, and ethnic groups and is appropriate for wider use. Discussion centers on the use of the Life Engagement Test in behavioral medicine and health psychology research and recent associations that have begun to emerge between the scale and health-relevant outcomes.</p