11 research outputs found
The Impact of Strategic Fit on Innovation Performance: Focusing on Manufacturing Industry
ํ์๋
ผ๋ฌธ (๋ฐ์ฌ)-- ์์ธ๋ํ๊ต ๋ํ์ ๊ณต๊ณผ๋ํ ํ๋๊ณผ์ ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฒฝ์ยท๊ฒฝ์ ยท์ ์ฑ
์ ๊ณต, 2017. 8. ๊ฐ์ง์.In a rapidly changing business management environment, continuous technological innovation is necessary in order to sustain a competitive advantage. However, technological innovation, by itself, does not necessarily guarantee success in firm management. There are many examples of firms that have failed to create values through technological innovation, despite the fact that they possess excellent innovative resources. I can easily find examples of firms that have failed to innovate because they could not seamlessly integrate their internal and external resources and because of inconsistencies in the strategies within the organization. The mutual interaction of various stakeholders, including top management teams (TMTs), suppliers, competitors and shareholders in exploring and developing innovative technologies, the convergence of a firms resources within a consistent strategy direction, and the creation of a synergistic effect are important. In other words, the way in which all the resources of technological innovation align is important in improving innovative performance.
This dissertation emphasizes the importance of strategic fit in firm innovation. This study first criticizes that the concept of fit is used inconsistently and indiscriminately in many literatures, and develop a framework of strategic fit that is suitable for the study in technological innovation. Based on this framework, this dissertation examines the effect of the strategic fit of various factors, especially centered on the three major factors such as the top management team attribute, the internal context as well as the external context of the firm.
As the first study, this dissertation examines the effect of TMT cognitive characteristics on fir innovation contingent upon internal context such as organizational search behavior. The central premise of upper echelons theory is that the organization is a reflection of the top management team. The top management team has the authority to formulate, execute and evaluate a firms innovation strategies. The knowledge base of the top management team is a key variable in predicting the firms innovation strategy tendencies. This study focuses on this knowledge diversity. The decision-making tendencies of a top management team with a diverse knowledge base and one with a homogeneous knowledge base are bound to differ. The majority of pre-existing study concludes that the greater the knowledge diversity, the better the innovation performance. However, just as the existing quantitative analysis shows, this tendency does not apply to all firms across the board. This is due to the fact that the top management teams strategy direction is executed by the internal organization of the firm, and the TMT effect can be distorted through the firms organizational behavior and routine. Therefore, this dissertation analyzes how the relationship between the TMTs knowledge diversity and the innovation performance changes because of the organizations internal structure. As a result of conducting quantitative analysis of 120 manufacturing companies in the U.S., a positive correlation was determined between the knowledge diversity founded on the past industrial experience of the top management team and innovation performance. However, the results vary depending on the organizational search scope. The more expansive the organizational search scope, the greater the effect of the TMTs knowledge diversity on innovation performance. Conversely, the narrower the organizational search scope, the more constrained the top management team effect. When TMT with diverse knowledge leads to a broad search organization, therefore, fit as internal complementarity increases, which improves innovation performance.
The effect of the TMTs knowledge diversity must also match the managerial discretion of the firm. The managerial discretion indicates the extent of the TMTs direct and proactive intervention into corporate affairs, and there is a high degree of variance depending on the type of industry. The effect of the TMTs knowledge diversity is greater in industries with high managerial discretion like computer or semi-conductor industries. In contrast, the TMT effect is limited in industries with low managerial discretion like forestry or simple manufacturing industries. Therefore, industries with high discretion are more likely to achieve fit as external complementarity with TMT with diverse knowledge, which improve innovation performance.
This dissertation also analyzes the relationship of external collaboration strategy and innovation performance. Firms can create innovative values by collaboration with many external partners. Some forms of external collaboration for innovations are mergers and acquisitions, alliances, and joint ventures. For the purpose of this study, the analysis focuses on alliances. In particular, the study analyzes the effect of alliance portfolio diversity on innovation performance. Alliance portfolio diversity refers to how many alliances firms forge with a diverse array of partners. Even if alliances are forged with great companies, alliances, by themselves, do not impact the innovation of the organization. From this perspective, I argue that the internal capability of value creation plays a critical role in leveraging alliance portfolio diversity. The alliance portfolio diversity can be represented as a pool of external resources which the focal firm can access. The extent of benefit that the focal firm gains from the portfolio will depend upon the internal capacity to create the value from the external resource pool.
Based on the dynamic capabilities framework that emphasizes competitive advantage is generated from the capabilities to combine and recombine internal and external resources (Teece, 1996Teece, Pisano, &, Shuen, 1997), this study empirically investigates how the fit between an alliance portfolio strategy and internal capabilities affects innovation performance. First, I confirm the direct relationship between innovation performance and alliance portfolio diversity in terms of industry, then examine how internal capabilities of value creation leverage this relationship. In this study, the internal capabilities of value creation are examined in two aspects: routine (organizational search routine) and ability (technological capabilities).
The results of this analyses show that the alliance portfolio diversity alone cannot explain the relationship with innovation performance, and this relationship is determined by internal contexts such as organizational search routine or technological capabilities.
Apart from the hypotheses tests, this study conducted additional analysis by adding interaction terms with industry volatility as dummy variable, to examine how interplay of alliance portfolio diversity and internal capabilities is applied in certain environment such as high volatile industries. The result of this analysis shows the interaction of alliance portfolio diversity and organizational search routines becomes more significant in industries with high volatility while interaction of alliance portfolio diversity, technological capabilities, and high volatility have no significance. This study analyzed the impact of alliance portfolio diversity on innovation performance in terms of fit as integrated complementarity that considers internal and external components simultaneously.Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1. Backgrounds 1
1.2. Research purpose 2
1.3. Research outline 6
Chapter 2. Literature review 11
2.1. The concept of strategic fit 11
2.1.1. Definition. 11
2.1.2. Strategic fit in various theories. 11
2.2. Critical review on strategic fit 11
2.2.1. Critical review on prior studies 11
2.2.2. Suggesting new framework for technological innovation study. 20
2.2.3. Empirical studies on strategic fit for innovation performance 28
2.3. Top management team and internal-external context 30
2.3.1. TMTs Knowledge base 30
2.3.2. Organizational search behavior 32
2.3.3. TMT Knowledge base and organizational search behavior 33
2.3.4. TMT Knowledge base and managerial discretion . 34
2.4. Alliance portfolio and internal and external contexts 35
2.4.1. Alliance portfolio diversity 35
2.4.2. Alliance portfolio diversity and internal capabilities . 38
2.4.3. Alliance portfolio diversity, internal capabilities, and industry volatility . . 39
Chapter 3. Strategic fit of TMT knowledge base and internal-external contexts 40
3.1. Introduction 40
3.2. Research hypotheses 44
3.2.1. Top Management Team Knowledge Diversity and Organizational Innovation. 44
3.2.2. Top Management Team Knowledge Diversity and Organizational Search Scope . 49
3.2.3. Top Management Team Knowledge Diversity and Managerial Discretion. 53
3.3. Methods 55
3.3.1. Data and sample 55
3.3.2. Dependent variable . 56
3.3.3. Independent variables 57
3.3.4. Control variables 59
3.3.5. Empirical model specification 60
3.4. Results 61
3.5. Sensitivity analysis 65
3.6. Discussion 68
Chapter 4. Strategic fit of alliance portfolio strategy and internal-external contexts 71
4.1. Introduction 71
4.2. Research hypotheses 74
4.2.1. Alliance portfolio diversity and firm innovation 74
4.2.2. Alliance portfolio diversity and internal capabilities of value creation . 76
4.2.3. Organizational search routine as an internal value creation routine 77
4.2.4. Technological capabilities as an internal value creation ability. 80
4.3. Method . 83
4.3.1. Data and sample . 83
4.3.2. Dependent variable 84
4.3.3. Independent variables 84
4.3.4. Control variables 86
4.3.5. Empirical model specification 87
4.4. Results 88
4.5. Sensitive analyses 93
4.6. Discussion 95
Chapter 5. Conclusions 98
5.1. Summary and contributions 98
5.2. Limitations and future research 102
Bibliography 103
๊ตญ ๋ฌธ ์ด ๋ก 146Docto
์๊ถค ๋ฐ ํ์กด ์ ๋ฌผ์ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก
์ด ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ด์ง(ๅพก็)์ ๊ด๋ จ ๋ฌธํ ๊ธฐ๋ก๊ณผ ์ ๋ฌผ์ ๋ํ ๊ณผํ์ ์กฐ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํด ๊ทธ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ์ ํต ํํ ์ค ์์ ์ด์์ ๊ทธ๋ฆฐ ์ด์ง์ ๋น๋์ ๊ฐ์ฅ ๋ฐ์ด๋ ํ์๋ค์ ์ํด ์ต๊ณ ์ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ก ์ ์๋์๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ๊ทธ ์๋ ์ด์ ํํ์ ๋ํ์ ์์ง์ด ๋ ์ ์๋ค. ํนํ ์กฐ์ ์๋์๋ ์ด๋ฌํ ์ด์ง๋ค์ ๊ณ์ ์ด๋ชจ(็งปๆจก)ํ๋ฉด์ ๊ทธ ์ ์ ๊ณผ์ ์ ๋ํด ๊ธฐ๋กํ๊ณ , ์ ํต ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ์ด์ด๊ฐ๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฌ๋ ์ผ์ ๊ฐ์ ๊ธฐ ์ดํ ์ ํต ์ด์ ํํ์ ์ฌ๋ฃ์ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ด ๊ฑฐ์ ์ ์น๋์ง ์์๊ณ , ํ์ฌ๊น์ง ์ ๋๋ก ๋ณต์ ๋์ง ๋ชปํ ์ค์ ์ด๋ค. ์กฐ์ ์๋์ ์ด์ง์ ๋ํด ์ญ์ฌ์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํจ๊ป ์ด๋ฃจ์ด์ง๋ค๋ฉด, ์ผ์ ๊ฐ์ ๊ธฐ์ ๋จ์ ๋ ์กฐ์ ์ด์ ํํ์ ์ ์ ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ค์ ์ด๋ ค๋ผ ์ ์์ผ๋ฉฐ, ์ ํต์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๊ฒ ๊ณ์นํ๋ ๊ธธ์ด ๋ ์ ์์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค.
ํ์กดํ๋ ์ด์ง๋ค์ ๋ชจ๋ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ์ ์ ์๋ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก, 1872๋
์ ์ด๋ชจํ , 1900๋
์ ์ด๋ชจํ , ์์กฐ๊ฐ ์์์ธ ์์ ์ 1714๋
์ ์ ์ํ , 1900๋
์ , 1826๋
์ , 1861๋
์ ์ด ์๋ค. ์ฌ์ฏ ์ ์ ์ด์ง๋ค์ ๊ฐ๋ณ์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ถ์ํ๊ณ , ์ข
ํฉํ์ฌ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ด์ง์ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ํด ๋
ผํ๊ณ ์ ํ์๋ค. ๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์์๋ ์ด์ง์ ๊ดํ ๋ฌธํ ์กฐ์ฌ์ ์ ๋ฌผ์ ๋ํ ๊ณผํ์ ์กฐ์ฌ ๋ ๊ฐ์ง๋ฅผ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ์ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์งํํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ์ด์ง์ ์ค๊ฒฌ(ๅฏฆ่ฆ)ํ ํ, ๊ทธ ์ด์ง์ ๋ค์ ์ ์ํ๋ ๋ชจ์ฌ์ ๊ณผ์ ์์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ํ ์ข
ํฉ์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ฐ๊ตฌ์์ ์ฐจ๋ณ์ฑ์ ๊ฐ๋๋ค.
์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋๋ผ์ ์ด์ง์ ์ค๊ตญ์ ์ง์ ์ ๋๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์๋ค์ฌ ์ ์ฌํ ํ์์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ์ ํ์๋ค. ํนํ ์กฐ์ ์๋ ์ด์ง์ ์ ๊ต์ ์ฌ์์ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ ์์ ํจ์ ์ ์ ์ ์ค์ฒํ ์ ์๋ ์ ์์ ๊ธฐ๋ฅ๊ณผ ๋ชฉ์ ์ ๊ฐ์ก๋ค. ๋ฐ๋ผ์ ๊ทธ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅธ ์์๊ณผ ์ ์ฐจ๋ ๋งค์ฐ ๊น๋ค๋กญ๊ณ ์ ํด์ง ํ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ์ผ ํ์ผ๋ฉฐ, ์์ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก ์ฌ๋ฌ ๋์ ๋ค์ด ํจ๊ป ํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ , ๊ตฌ๋ณธ์ด ๋ก๊ณ ํฌ๋ฏธํด์ง๋ฉด, ์กฐ์์ ๋ํ ์์๊ฐ ์๋์์ผ๋ฏ๋ก ์๋ก์ด ๋ณธ์ผ๋ก ์ด๋ชจํ์ฌ ๋ด์ํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฐ๋ฐ ์์ง์๋๊ณผ ๋ณ์ํธ๋ ์ดํ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ์ ์๊ธด ๋ณํ๋ก ์ด์ง ์ ๊ฐ๊ณผ์ ์ ์ด์ ๊ณผ ๋ค๋ฅธ ์ฐจ์ด์ ์ด ์๊ธฐ๊ฒ ๋๋ค. ์ ๋์ผ๋ก ์ธํด ์์ค๋ ์ ์กฐ๋ค์ ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ๋จ์ง ๋ณต์์ด๋ผ๋ ์๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๋์ด ์กฐ์ ์์ค์ ๊ถ์๋ฅผ ๋ค์ ์ธ์ฐ๋ ์ญํ ์ ๊ธฐ๋ํ ์ ์์์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ์ด๊ฒ์ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ๋ํ ์ธ์๊ณผ๋ ๋ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก ์ ๋ ์ดํ ์กฐ์ ์์ค ๋ณต๊ตฌ์ ์ฑ๊ฒฉ์ด ๊ฐ์กฐ๋ ๊ฒ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํ ์ ์๋ค. ํนํ ์์ข
๋์ 100๋
๊ฐ๊น์ด ์ด๋ฃจ์ด์ง์ง ์์๋ ์์ ๋์ฌ๋ฅผ ์์ํ๊ณ , ์์ ์ด์์ ์ง์นญํ๋ ์ด์ง์ด๋ผ๋ ์ฉ์ด์ ์ ํ, ์์ข
๊ฐ์ธ์ ์ํ์ ๋ํ ์ทจ๋ฏธ๋ ์์ข
๋์ ์ด์ง์ด ํฌ๊ฒ ๋ฐ์ ํ ์ ์์๋ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์ด ๋์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ์ ํต์ฑ์ ๊ณ์นํ๋ ค๋ ์ ๊ทน์ ์ธ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ ์๋ ์ด์ง ์ ์ ๊ด๋ จ ์ ๋์ ๋ณํ๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ๊ฒ ๋์๋ค. ์ ๋๊ณผ ๋ถ๋น ์ ์น์ ๋น์ ๋ฑ์ผ๋ก ์ฝํ๋ ์์ค์ ๊ถ์๋ฅผ ๋์ด๋ฆฌ๋๋ฐ ์ฃผ๋ ฅํ์๊ณ , ์์ข
๋์ ์โข์ ์กฐ๋์ ์ค์์ง๊ถ๊ฐํ์ ์ ์น์ ๋ฐฉํฅ์์ ์ด์ง ์ ๋๋ ์์ธ์ผ ์๋ ์์๋ค. ์ ์กฐ๋ค์ ์ด์ง ๋ชจ์ฌ์ ๋ด์์ ํตํด ์กฐ์ ์ ์ ํต์ฑ์ ๊ณ์นํ๊ณ ๊ฐ์กฐํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋น๋ ์์ ์ด์ง ๋์ฌ๋ ๊ทธ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์ ์๋ ์์ง์ฑ์ ๊ฐ์ก์ผ๋ฉฐ, ๋ชจ๋ ๋์ ๊ณผ ๋ฐฑ์ฑ๋ค์ด ์ด์ ์๋ ์ต๊ณ ์ ์ด๋ฒ์ด๋ก์์ ์์ ์ฌ๊ธฐ๋๋ก ํ๋ ์๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ์ง๋
๋ค. ๋ํ ์์กฐ์ ์ ์กฐ๋ 10๋
์ ์ฃผ๊ธฐ๋ก ์ด์ง์ ๋์ฌ๋ณธ์ ์ ์ํ๋๋ก ํ์ฌ ์ ๋์ ๋ฐ์ ๊ณผ ๋น์์ฑ์ ํ๊ณ ํ ํ๋๋ฐ ์ฃผ๋ ฅํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ์ ์กฐ์ ๊ท์ฅ๊ฐ์ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก ํ ์๋น๋๋ นํ์์ ๋์ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ์๋ ์ต๊ณ ์ ํ์ ์ก์ฑ๊ณผ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ๋ฐ์ ์ํค๋ ์๋๋ ฅ์ด ๋์๋ค.
์ค์ ์ด์ง ์ ๋ฌผ์ ๋ง์ด ๋จ์ ์์ง ์์ง๋ง, ๊ทธ์ ๊ดํ ๊ธฐ๋ก์ ์๋น์๊ฐ ํ์กดํ๊ณ ์์ด ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋ฅํ๋ค. ํนํ ์ด์ง ์ ์๊ณผ ๊ด๋ จ๋ ์๊ถค๋ค์ ๊ธฐ๋ก ๋ฌธํ์ ์ ์๋ผ๊ณ ํ ์ ์๋ค. ์์ธํ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ด ๊ธฐ์ ๋ ๊ฒ์ ์๋์ง๋ง, ์ ์๊ณผ์ ์ ์์์ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ, ์ด์ง ํ์ฌ ์ ์ ๊ณผ์ , ๋ด๋นํ์, ์ฌ๋ฃ์ ์ข
๋ฅ์ ์๋ ๋ฑ์ ๋ํ ๊ธฐ๋ก ๋๋ถ์ ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ์ ๋ฐ์ ์ธ ๋ด์ฉ๋ค์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๋ค. ๋์ฒด๋ก ์ฃผ๊ดํ์ฌ, ๋์ฐธํ์ฌ, ์์ข
ํ์ฌ๋ค์ 10์ฌ ๋ช
์ด ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ์ฐธ์ฌํ์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ์ ์ ์์ธ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ ์ผ์ฃผ์ผ ์ ํ, ๋ฐ์ ์์ธ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ ์ผ์ผ ์ ๋์ ๋น๊ต์ ์งง์ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ ๋์์ ๋น๋จ์ ์์ดํ์ฌ ์์ฑํ ๊ฒ์ ์ ์ ์๋ค. ์ ๋ฌธ์ ์ธ ํ์๋ค์ ์ฐ์ํ ์ค๋ ฅ๊ณผ ํ๋ ์์
์ ์ํ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ผ ํ ์ ์์ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ์ด๋ฌํ ์ด์ง ํ์ฌ๋ค์ ์์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํด ์ ๋ฐ ๋๊ฑฐ๋ ๋๊ฐ์ ์ํด ์์ฌ ์์ด ์ถ์ฒ๋๊ธฐ๋ ํ์๋ค. ์ด์ง ์ ์์์ ํ์์ด ์ฌ์ฉํ ์๋ฃ์ ๊ธฐํ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ค๋ ์๊ถค ๊ธฐ๋ก์ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ์ฐ๊ตฌํ์๋ค. ์๋ฃ๋ ์ค์ ํ๋ฉด์์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ง๋ ์๋ณด๋ค๋ ๊ทธ ์๊ฐ ์ ์ ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์๋ค์ด ์ฌ์ฉ๋์์ผ๋ฉฐ, ํผํฉ ๋๋ ์กฐํฉํ์ฌ ์ฌ์ฉํ์๋ค. ํ์์ด ์ฌ์ฉํ ๊ธฐํ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ค์๋ ์๊ต, ๋ถ, ์ข
์ด, ๊ทธ๋ฆ, ํ, ๊ฐ์ข
์ฐ์ฅ๊ณผ ์ฒ ์ฌ, ๋ชฉ์ฌ๋ฅ, ์๊ฑด๊ณผ ์ฒ๋ฅ, ํ๊ณผ ํฅ๋ฅ ๋ฑ์ด ๊ธฐ๋ก๋์๋ค.
๋ค์์ผ๋ก ์ด์ง์ ์ ์๊ณผ์ ๊ณผ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๋ฉด ๋ช ๊ฐ์ง ์ค์ํ ํน์ง์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ฐ์ ์ด์ง ์ ์๊ณผ์ ์ ์ ์ง์ ์ด๋ฅผ ๋จ๊ณ ๋ฐฐ์ฑ์ ์ ์ฑ์ ๊ณผ์ ์ ๊ฑฐ์ณ ์์ฑํ๋ ์ ์ง์ด๋ณธ ๊ณผ์ ์ผ๋ก ์์ํ์๋ค. ์ ์ง์ด๋ณธ ๊ณผ์ ์ ๋งค์ฐ ์ค์ํ๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ์ ๋์ฌ ๋๊น์ง ๋ค์ ๊ณ ์ณ ๋ง๋๋ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ๋ ํ์ธํ ์ ์์๋ค. ์ ์ง์ด๋ณธ์ด ์์ฑ๋๋ฉด ์ ๋ณธ ์ ์์ด ์์๋์๋ค. ์์ด, ๋ฐฐ์ฑ์ ์ ์ฑ ๊ณผ์ ์ ๊ฑฐ์ณ ๋ง๋ฌด๋ฆฌ ํ์๋ค. ์ด์ง ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ํน์ง๋ค์ ์ ๋ฌ, ์ฌ๋ฃ์ ์ฑ์ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ๋ถํ์ฌ ์ดํด๋ณผ ์ ์๋ค. ์ด์ง์ ๋ํ๋ ์ ๋ฌ๋ ๋ค์ ์ผ๊ตด์ ๊ณผ ์์ต์ ์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ๋ถํ์ฌ ๊ทธ ํน์ฑ๋ค์ ์ฐพ์ ์ ์๋ค. ๋จผ์ ์ผ๊ตด์ ์ ์ ์ดํด๋ณด๋ฉด, ๊ณ ๊ณ ์ ์ฌ๋ฌ ๊ณํต์์ ํผ๋ฌ ๊ณํต์ผ๋ก์ ๋ณํ๋ฅผ ๋ณผ ์ ์๋ค. ์์ต์ ์์๋ ๋น์์ ๋ณํ๊ฐ ํฐ ์ ๋์๋ฏธ์ ์์ต๋ฌ์์ ํ๋๋ก ๊ฐ์๋ก ๋น์์ ๋ณํ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์ ์๋ ์ฒ ์ ๋ฌ๋ก์ ๋ณํ๋ฅผ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๋ค. ์์ต์ ์ ํํ์์๋ ์ฒ์ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์ด ์ฝํด์ ธ ๋ค์ ๊ทธ์๊ฑฐ๋, ์ฒ์ ๊ทธ์ ์ ์ด ์ ์ง๋๋ ์ข
๋ฅ๋ก ๊ตฌ๋ถํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ด์ง๋ค์ ์ธ๋ฐํ ๋ฌธ์๋ค์์ ์ ์ค์ฌ์ ํํ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ค์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ด๋ฌํ ๋ถ๋ถ๋ค์ ํตํด ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ด์ง์ ๋ํ๋ ์ ๋ฌ ์ค์ฌ์ ์ฑ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์๋ค. ์ด์ง ์ ์์ ์ฌ์ฉํ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ฅผ ์ดํด๋ณด๋ฉด, ๋น์ ๊ตฌํ ์ ์๋ ์ต๊ณ ์ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ฉํ์์ผ๋ฉฐ, ์๊ณผ ์์์ ์ด์์์๋ ์ฌ๋ฃ์ ๊ตฌ๋ถ์ด ์์๋ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ํ ๋ถ๋ถ์ ๋ฐฐ๋ฉด๊ณผ ์ ๋ฉด์ ๋ค๋ฅธ ์๋ฃ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ฉํ์์์ ํ์ธํ ์ ์์๋ค. ์ด์ง์ ์ฑ์ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์์ ๋ฐฐ์ฑ๋ ๋งค์ฐ ์ค์ํ ๋ถ๋ถ์ ์ฐจ์งํ๋ค. ๋ฐฐ์ฑ๋ฅผ ํตํด ์ป์ ์ ์๋ ํจ๊ณผ๋ ์์ ์ฑ, ๋ณด์กด์ฑ, ๊ฒฝ์ ์ , ํจ์จ์ฑ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํ ์ ์๋ค.
๋ํ ์ ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ๊ด๋ จ๋ ๋ฌธํ ๊ธฐ๋ก๊ณผ ๊ณผํ์ ์กฐ์ฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ์ค์ ์ ์์ ์ฌ์ฉํ ์๋ฃ๋ฅผ ์ถ์ ํ์๋ค. ๋ฌธํ ๊ธฐ๋ก์ ๋ํ๋ ์๋ฃ๋ช
๊ณผ ์๋ฃ ๊ตฌ์ฑ ์ฑ๋ถ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ฐ๊ฒฐํ์ฌ ์ข
ํฉํ๊ณ , ์ค์ ์ ์ํ๋ฉด์ ์๊ฒ ๋ ๋ถ๋ถ๊น์ง ๋ํ์ฌ ์กฐ์ ํ๊ธฐ ์ด์ง์ ๊ฐ ๋ถ๋ถ์ ์ฌ์ฉํ ์๋ฃ๋ฅผ ์ถ์ ํ์ฌ ์ ๋ฆฌํ์๋ค. ์๋ฃ๋ฟ๋ง ์๋๋ผ ์ด์ง ์ ์์์ ํ์๋ค์ด ์ฌ์ฉํ ์ฌ๋ฃ๋ค์ ๋ํด์๋ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ์๋ค.
์ผ์ ๊ฐ์ ๊ธฐ ์ดํ ์ด์ง์ ์์ํ์ ๋ฌ์ฌ๋ฒ์ ์น์คํ๊ฑฐ๋ ์ด์ ๋ฐฉ์์ ๋ต์ตํ๋๋ฐ ๊ทธ์น๋ ์์์ด ๋ํ๋ฌ๋ค. ๋์ํ์ ์ด์ํ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ ๋ํ ์๋์ ๋ณ์ฉ์ด ๊ฐ๋ฅํ๊ณ , ์ฐฝ์์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ฐ๊พธ์ด ๋๊ฐ์ผ ํ์ง๋ง, ๊ทธ ๊ณผ์ ์์๋ ์ธ์ ๋ ์ค์ฌ์ด ๋๋ ์ ํต์ ๋ฐํ์ผ๋ก ํด์ผ ํจ์ ์ ์ ์๋ค.
์ด์ง๋ค์ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์ ํจ๊ป ์์๋ ์ด์ง๋ค์ ๋ณต์ ๋ชจ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํ์๋ค. ๋ณต์ ๋ชจ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํด ๋จ์ง ๋ฌธํ๊ณผ ์ ๋ฌผ์ ์กฐ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํ ํผ์์ ์ธ ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์๋ ์ค์ง์ ์ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ ๋ณต์์ด๋ผ๋ ์์๋ฅผ ์ฐพ์ ์ ์๋ค. ์๋ ๊ทธ๋๋ก๋ฅผ ๋ฒ ๊ปด๋ด๋ ๊ฒ์ ๊ทธ์น๋ ๊ฒ์ด ์๋๋ผ, ์์๋ ์ ๋ฌผ์ ์ ํต์ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ผ๋ก ๋ค์ ๋์ด๋ ค ๊ฐ์ํ ๋ ์ ์๋๋ก ํ์๋ค. ๋ณต์ ๋ชจ์ฌ๋ฅผ ํตํ ์ด ์ ์๊ธฐ๋ฒ ์ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๋จ์ ๋ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ณต์๋ฟ๋ง ์๋๋ผ, ์ ํต์ ์ด์ด ๊ฐ ์ ์๊ณ , ์ด ์๋ ์ด์ํ ๋ฐ ํํ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ๋ค์ ์ ์ฉํ ์ ์๋ ์ ํต๊ณผ ํ์ฌ์ ๊ฐ๊ต ์ญํ ์ด ๋๋ ๊ฒ์ ๊ธฐ๋ํด ๋ณธ๋ค.This study describes the techniques used in royal portraiture during the late Joseon Dynasty (the Late 17th Century through the early 20th Century) based on academic studies, a collection of royal protocols from the period, and scientific surveys of the portraits in question.
Because of the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910-1945), Korea lost many of its traditional arts, including its time-honored portraiture techniques. Later, during the Korean War (1950-1953), many royal portraits from the Joseon period were burned. However, a few of these portraitsโas well as a collection of royal protocols detailing their constructionโsurvived, so scholars can still study the techniques employed and marvel at the skills of traditional Korean portraitists. Only six royal portraits survive: two of King Taejo (the founding father of the Joseon Dynasty who reigned from 1392-1398)โone is in blue clothing (1872) and the other is in red clothing (1900)โtwo of King Yeongjo (who reigned from 1724-1776)โone portrait (1714) was made before he took the throne when he was known as Prince Yeoning and another (1900) after his ascensionโone (1826) of King Ikjong (who reigned from 1809-1930), and one (1861) of King Cheoljong (who reigned from 1849-1863). These traditional royal portraits demonstrate both the quality of the Joseon artists and also the techniques that they used. Unfortunately, with the exception of one of the portraits of King Taejo (in blue clothing), all of these royal portraits were severely damaged by fire.
While several studies about these royal portraits currently exist, they are written from an art history point-of-view and do not provide a substantial analysis of the actual techniques, skills, and materials involved in the painting of the portraits. Several artists have made replicas of these royal portraits before, but due to extremely limited access to the original portraits, most of these replicates were forced to use photographs of the paintings as their sole reference material. This meant that they had to use mere conjecture and imagination to determine their replica-making process. In addition, although there are numerous collections of royal protocols related to traditional royal portraiture, few artists afforded them anything more than a cursory examination. Therefore, the proper techniques and materials described in the protocols have been lost on most artists and scholars. Not only have I taken these collections into account, but I also had access to the original paintings, which allowed me to do my research directly from the source. This opportunity allowed me to make replicas that followed the original techniques, mimicking the original materials as closely as possible.
I explored the techniques, skills, and materials used in these traditional portraits, and then applied them towards creating my own replicas of the portraits. To accomplish this, I thoroughly researched the original portraits, making use of both academic studiesโa list of the painters chosen by the court and many of the pigments, papers, silks, etc. used were documented in the a collection of royal protocols called Uigwe(ๅ่ป)โand scientific surveysโsuch as, microscopic examination and XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry) pigment analysis of the portraits. This research allowed me to determine which techniques and raw materials were used with a great deal of accuracy. By mimicking the techniques and using similar materials, I attempted to make my paintings as similar to the originals as possible.
Through this research, I discovered several important characteristics of the royal portraiture of the late Joseon Dynasty. Each royal portrait was produced by a group four to ten portraitist chosen from among the court painters. This group consisted of a chief painter and several assistant painters. Usually, it took between seven and ten days to make a full-length portrait and about three days to finish a half-length one. The process starts with drawing a draft on oil paper, which is translucent and similar to silk canvas. In draft drawing, the portraitist sketched the king with charcoal and then drew lines with ink and brush on top of the charcoal sketch. After that, coloring began. Both sides of the oil paper were painted, beginning with the reverse. This draft drawing was very important in establishing the look of the final portrait, and was, therefore, repeated multiple times before the artists moved on to the next step. If the draft drawing was satisfactory, the painters advanced to drawing on a silk canvas. The draft drawing was traced directly onto the silk canvas with ink and brush, because the silk canvases used were so transparent and sheer that charcoal lines would be easily visible through the canvas. After the ink tracing is done, the portrait was colored (as before) on both sides, beginning with the reverse and then progressing to the front. When the painting was finished, it was pasted onto paper and silk in order to strengthen the structural integrity of the painting. Finally, the top and bottom of the portrait was decorated with tassels and pieces of silk and made into a scroll.
The most important stylistic element in traditional Korean painting, as well as most other traditional Asian painting is the line. Traditional Asian painting developed many types of lines and brush strokes, which mimicked various elements in the painters environments. Three of the most common line types in traditional Korean portraiture are: Gaoguyousimiao (้ซๅค้็ตฒๆ), which refers to a series of thin lines resembling the long, loose, waving strands of a silk worms thread, Tiexianmiao (้ต็ทๆ), which is a thin, steady line resembling wire, and Dingtoushuweimiao (้้ ญ้ผ ๅฐพๆ), which is a series of long, tapering lines resembling rat tales. Though my research, I was able to determine which lines were employed in traditional Korean portraiture and for which purposes they were used. Gaoguyousimiao is usually used to depict the faces of the kings with a series of dark brown lines. For the painting of the kings robes, however, usage differs between the portraits. Dingtoushuweimiao is used in the portraits of Prince Yeoning and King Taejo, but Tiexianmiao is used in the portraits of King Yeongjo, King Ikjong, and King Cheoljong. In addition to which types of lines are used, other technical differences exist between the portraits. For example, in the portraits of King Taejo and King Cheoljong, the Tiexianmiao lines of the robes were retraced after coloring, since the pigment used on the front of the portrait was too thick and made the lines appear too faint. On the other hand, in the portraits of Prince Yeoning and King Yeongjo, all of the lines were painted only once, and the pigment used in coloring the front was kept remarkably thin, which allowed the original lines to show through and alleviated the need for retracing. Many other such variations in technique were discovered through my research, and they are detailed in the full essay.
Materials used for royal portraits were of the highest quality available in the Joseon Dynasty. Gold leaf was used extensively on the reverse of the canvas, and gold powder was used for coloring the front of the canvas. In addition, other mineral-based and plant-based pigments were used. First-hand observation of the original portraits showed which pigments were used on which side of the canvas to create the final color effect of the portraits. This technique of painting both sides of the canvas is unique to silk-canvas portraiture and has several benefits. From an aesthetic perspective, the artists were able to create a clear, watercolor-like effect on the faces of the subjects by using only a very thin layer of plant-based pigment to color the faces on the display-side of the portrait. This made the ever-important lines clearly visible, thanks to the transparency of the thin pigment layer. The technique was also useful in terms of preservation and conservation, as the majority of the coloring, and the thickest layers of pigment were painted on the reverse of the canvas and then pasted to paper and silk, protecting them from harm. It also made economic sense, since the artists could use relatively cheap plant-based pigments (such as indigo dye) for the majority of the back of the canvas, while more expensive mineral-based pigments (such as azurite) were on display over most of the front side.
The essay details many common characteristics between the six royal portraits and compares them with other Korean and Chinese portraits of the period, examining both the artistry of traditional Korean portraits as well as the techniques, skills, and materials used to create them.Docto
์ํ๋ฅผ ํตํ ๊ณ์ธต์์ ํํ ์ฐ๊ตฌ : ๋ณธ์ธ์ ์ํ์ ์ค์ฌ์ผ๋ก
ํ์๋
ผ๋ฌธ(์์ฌ)--์์ธ๋ํ๊ต ๋ํ์ :๋์ํ๊ณผ ๋์ํ์ ๊ณต,2004.Maste