642 research outputs found

    Hypothesis Testing by Simulation: An Environmental Example

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    The study of environmental systems as ecological, physico-chemical as well as socio-economic entities requires a high degree of simplifying formalism. However, a detailed understanding of a systems function and response to various changes for the explicit purpose of systems management and planning, still requires complex hypotheses, or models, which can hardly be subjected to rigorous tests without the aid of computers. Systems simulation is a powerful tool when subjecting complex hypotheses to rigorous tests of their logical structure, as well as a possible means for rejecting or corroborating the underlying hypotheses. The complexity and variability of environmental systems, the scarcity of appropriate observations and experiments, problems in the interpretation of empirical data, and the lack of a well established theoretical background make it difficult to test any possible conceptualization, or hypothesis, describing a given system. A formal approach to hypothesis testing, based on numerical simulation, which explicitly considers the above constraints, is proposed. Based on a data set from the North Sea, a series of hypotheses on the structural relations and the dynamic function of the pelagic food web is formulated in terms of numerical models. Hypotheses of various degrees of aggregation and abstraction are tested by comparing singular statements (predictions) deduced from the proposed hypotheses (the models) with the observations. The basic processes of primary production, consumption, and remineralization, driven by light, temperature, and advection/diffusion, are described in systems models ranging in complexity from two compartments to many compartments and species groups. With each of the proposed models, yearly cycles of the systems behavior are simulated. A comparative analysis of the response of each of the models allows conclusions to be drawn on the adequacy of the alternative hypotheses. This analysis also allows one to reject inadequate constructs, and provides some guidance on how to improve a certain hypothesis, even in the presence of a high degree of uncertainty

    Modelling Biological Processes in the Aquatic Environment

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    Based on some of the most recent contributions to the field of biological modelling within the frame of ecosystems analysis, some aspects of modelling eco-physiological processes in the aquatic environment are discussed. First, a few rather general comments are made on the predictive capabilities of complex ecosystems models, and the related need to use more realistic and causal descriptions for various complex biological processes. Following this, some ideas and formulations, guided by the above principles, are compiled and discussed. The use of more realistic representations of biological processes, including time-varying parameters, is advocated, and several approaches are compared. Key factors such as temperature, light or nutrients are considered with regard to the basic biological internal control mechanism of adaptation. The inclusion of adaptation phenomena in the representation of, for example, effects of temperature, light dependency of primary production, or nutrient uptake kinetics, is described on different levels of mechanistic detail and complexity, and as a holistic feature. This is also an attempt to reduce dimensionality in complex models by increasing the realism in the description of functionally heterogeneous lumped compartments and thus avoiding separate detailed descriptions of their major component elements. In addition to the adaptation in single-species populations, the problem of community adaptation in multi-species populations, represented in most ecosystem models by lumped variables and averaged parameters, is considered in relation to environmental fluctuations and environmental uncertainty. A concept of environmental tracking is proposed, represented by the relation of parameter values to their governing input variables and state variables, as a major adaptive strategy for biotic systems

    Estimating Model Prediction Accuracy: A stochastic Approach to Ecosystem Modeling

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    Ecosystems are, as a rule, characterized by a large behavioral repertoire showing a high degree of structural variability and complex control mechanisms such as adaptation and self-organization. Our quantitative understanding of ecosystems behavior is generally poor, and field data are notoriously scarce, scattered, and noisy. This is most pronounced on a high level of aggregation where considerable sampling errors are involved. Also, no well established and generally accepted ecological theory exists, so that an operational ecosystem model consists of many more arbitrary, simplifying assumptions (more often than not implicitly hidden in process descriptions) than properties measurable in the field. Consequently, predictions of future systems behavior under changed conditions -- a most desirable tool for environmental management -- cannot be precise and unique in a deterministic sense. Rather, it is essential to estimate the levels of model reliability and the effects of various sources of uncertainty on model prediction accuracy. A concept of allowable ranges for model data-input and expected model response, explicitly including uncertainty in the numerical methods, is proposed. Straightforward Monte Carlo simulation techniques are used, and the approach is exemplified on a lake ecosystem eutrophication problem. The method attempts to predict future systems states in terms of probability distributions, and explores the relations of prediction accuracy to data uncertainty and systems variability, the time horizon of the prediction, and finally the degree of extrapolation in state- and input-space relative to the empirical range of systems behavior. The analysis of almost 100,000 model runs also allows some conclusions on model sensitivity, and some desirable model properties in light of prediction accuracy are identified

    Children's developing understanding of the normative dimension of others' assertions

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    Until now, psychology and empirical research have focused on the ontogeny of moral and conventional norms, whereas theoretical (epistemic) norms received little attention. While the former regulates the way of acting and human interactions in society, the latter describes the norms of human beliefs and knowledge. Epistemic norms are fundamental for our theoretical reasoning, gaining cultural knowledge and our understanding of truth. Speech acts are of crucial importance in the field of epistemic normativity, as they are closely entwined with epistemic norms. Therefore, the competence to evaluate claims of others is of crucial importance for people. Only with this ability can we distinguish true from false statements and recognize whether others are adhering to or violating epistemic norms. Norms contain obligations, but also entitlements, which constitute a complex normative construct. This complexity develops from the fact that entitlements are equally linked to obligations of others: if a person is entitled to assert his or her knowledge (because the knowledge is justified by sufficient evidence), this implies that others are obliged to grant him this right. If they violated their obligation, it would be a norm transgression. The objective of the present dissertation was to investigate children’s understanding of epistemic normativity, focusing on the understanding of speech acts. In Study 1, their understanding of the correctness or incorrectness of epistemic speech acts in the form of knowledge claims ("I know where X is!") was investigated. Study 2 addressed both the question of whether children understand that knowledge entitles a person to perform speech acts and whether they defend this right. Study 3 examined the understanding of moral dimension of incorrect factual claims ("This is an X!", although it is a Y) in two ways: Study 3a aimed to test whether children included the consequences of a false factual speech act in their evaluation and whether they rated a speech act that would lead to harmful consequences more negatively than a speech act that would only result in harmless consequences. Study 3b investigated whether children take into account the intentions of a speaker and evaluate the wrong speech action of a speaker with bad intentions more negatively than that of a speaker with good intentions, whereby both speech acts caused the same harmful consequences. In order to answer these questions, interview studies (Studies 1 and 3) and a behavioral counter-protest paradigm (Study 2) were used. In all studies, hand puppets performed the speech acts. The dissertation examined children between the ages of three and five. Both younger (3- to 4.5-year-olds) and older (4.6- to 5.11-year-olds) children accepted correct knowledge claims that corresponded to the observable reality. But only the older age group could reliably reject incorrect knowledge claims that did not match reality. However, some of the younger children could both reject the incorrect knowledge claims and give valid explanations for the evaluation of the speech act. Thus, those competent children were both able to categorize knowledge speech acts and to ascribe knowledge and ignorance, respectively, to the speaker (Study 1). Moreover, it was found that children at the age of three understand non-epistemic entitlements, that is, they defended the right of a person to express true facts by protesting against the unjustifiably criticizing puppet. However, only 5-year-olds were able to apply this protest behavior to epistemic entitlements. It is not before this age that children understand a person’s right to assert knowledge that is based on good evidence (Study 2). It was also found that children from the age of four to five understand the moral dimension of incorrect factual claims. Children rated the incorrect factual claim of the puppet more negatively if they anticipated harmful consequences than if the consequences would have been harmless. They also judged the incorrect factual claim of the puppet with bad intentions more negative than that of the puppet with good intentions. Thus, they placed the intention of the puppets above the harmful consequence to be expected by the false factual claim. With the three studies, the dissertation showed that an understanding of epistemic normativity and of speech acts of both epistemic ("I know X!") and normative nature gradually develops at the age of four to five years. Finally, children at this age recognize the social-normative component of epistemic states of others and consider knowledge from a normative perspective. However, it also turned out that children develop their understanding of epistemic norms much later than their understanding of practical norms, which is attributable to the complexity of epistemic states. Empirical research on epistemic normativity is still in its early stages, thus further studies are needed to fully understand children's understanding of epistemic normativity.Bis jetzt lag in der Psychologie und der empirischen Forschung der Fokus auf der Entstehung von moralischen und konventionellen Normen, wohingegen theoretischen (epistemischen) Normen nur wenig Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wurde. WĂ€hrend die ersteren Handlungsweisen sowie das menschliche Miteinander in der Gesellschaft regeln, beschreiben letztere die Normen der menschlichen Überzeugungen und des Wissens. Epistemische Normen sind fundamental fĂŒr unser theoretisches Denken, das Erlangen von kulturellem Wissen und fĂŒr unser VerstĂ€ndnis von Wahrheit. Sprechakte sind im Bereich der epistemischen NormativitĂ€t von entscheidender Wichtigkeit, da sie eng mit epistemischen Normen verbunden sind. Aus diesem Grund ist die Kompetenz Behauptungen anderer bewerten zu können fĂŒr Menschen von großer Bedeutung. Nur mit dieser FĂ€higkeit können wir wahre von falschen Aussagen unterscheiden und erkennen, ob andere epistemische Normen einhalten oder verletzen. Normen beinhalten Verpflichtungen, aber auch Berechtigungen, welche ein komplexes normatives Konstrukt darstellen. Diese KomplexitĂ€t entsteht dadurch, dass Berechtigungen gleichermaßen mit Verpflichtungen anderer verbunden sind: wenn eine Person berechtigt ist ihr Wissen zu Ă€ußern (da es durch ausreichende Evidenz begrĂŒndet ist), bringt dies mit sich, dass andere verpflichtet sind, ihr dieses Recht zuzugestehen. Widersetzten sie sich ihrer Verpflichtung, wĂ€re das eine Normverletzung. Die vorliegende Dissertation hatte zum Ziel das kindliche VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischen Normen mit Fokus auf das VerstĂ€ndnis von Sprechakten zu untersuchen. In Studie 1 sollte ihr VerstĂ€ndnis fĂŒr die Korrektheit oder Inkorrektheit von epistemischen Sprechakten in Form von Wissensbehauptungen („Ich weiß wo X ist!“) untersucht werden. Studie 2 ging der Frage nach, ob Kinder sowohl verstehen, dass Wissen eine Person berechtigt Sprechakte auszufĂŒhren als auch, ob sie dieses Recht verteidigen. Studie 3 untersuchte die moralische Dimension von inkorrekten Faktenaussagen („Das ist ein X!“, obwohl es ein Y ist). Dieses VerstĂ€ndnis wurde in zweifacher Hinsicht untersucht. In Studie 3a sollte getestet werden, ob Kinder die Konsequenzen eines falschen Sprechaktes in ihre Evaluierung miteinbeziehen und eine Sprechhandlung, die zu schĂ€dlichen Konsequenzen fĂŒhren wĂŒrden, negativer bewerten als einen Sprechakt, der harmlose Folgen haben wĂŒrde. Studie 3b sollte untersuchen, ob Kinder die Intentionen eines Sprechers berĂŒcksichtigen und die falsche Sprechhandlung eines Sprechers mit schlechter Intention negativer bewerten als die eines Sprechers mit guter Intention, wobei beide Sprechakte dieselben schĂ€dlichen Konsequenzen auslösen wĂŒrden. Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragestellungen wurden zum einen Interviewstudien (Studie 1 und 3) und zum anderen ein verhaltensorientiertes Gegenprotest-Paradigma (Studie 2) eingesetzt. In allen Studien ĂŒbten Handpuppen die Sprechakte aus. Die Dissertation untersuchte Kinder im Alter von drei bis fĂŒnf Jahren. Sowohl jĂŒngere (3- bis 4,5-jĂ€hrige) als auch Ă€ltere (4,6- bis 5,11-jĂ€hrige) Kinder akzeptierten richtige Wissensbehauptungen, die der beobachtbaren RealitĂ€t entsprachen. Aber nur die Ă€ltere Altersgruppe konnte zuverlĂ€ssig inkorrekte Wissensbehauptungen, die nicht der RealitĂ€t entsprachen, ablehnen. Jedoch konnte ein Teil der jĂŒngeren Kinder sowohl die inkorrekten Wissensbehauptungen ablehnen als auch valide ErklĂ€rungen fĂŒr die Bewertung des Sprechaktes geben (Studie 1). Des Weiteren zeigte sich, dass Kinder im Alter von drei Jahren nicht-epistemische Berechtigungen verstehen, das heißt sie verteidigten das Recht einer Person wahre Fakten zu Ă€ußern, indem sie gegen die zu Unrecht kritisierende Puppe protestierten. Allerdings konnten erst FĂŒnfjĂ€hrige dieses Protestverhalten auf epistemische Berechtigungen anwenden. Erst in diesem Alter verstehen Kinder das Recht einer Person Wissen zu Ă€ußern, wenn dieses auf guter Evidenz beruht (Studie 2). Zudem zeigte sich, dass Kinder im Alter von vier bis fĂŒnf Jahren die moralische Dimension von inkorrekten Faktenaussagen verstehen. Kinder bewerteten die inkorrekte Faktenbehauptung der Puppe negativer, wenn sie schĂ€dliche Folgen voraussahen als wenn die Folgen harmlos gewesen wĂ€ren. Ebenso beurteilten sie die inkorrekte Faktenbehauptung der Puppe mit schlechten Absichten negativer als die der Puppe mit guten Absichten. Somit stellten sie die Intention der Puppen ĂŒber die schĂ€dliche Konsequenz, die durch die falsche Faktenaussage zu antizipieren war. Mit den drei Studien, konnte in der Dissertation gezeigt werden, dass sich im Alter von vier bis fĂŒnf Jahren ein VerstĂ€ndnis fĂŒr epistemische NormativitĂ€t und fĂŒr Sprechakte sowohl epistemischer („Ich weiß X!“) als auch normativer Art entwickelt. Kinder in diesem Alter erkennen schließlich die sozial-normative Komponente von epistemischen ZustĂ€nden anderer und betrachten Wissen unter einer normativen Sichtweise. Es zeigt sich allerdings auch, dass Kinder das VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischen Normen weitaus spĂ€ter entwickeln als das VerstĂ€ndnis von praktischen Normen, was auf die KomplexitĂ€t von epistemischen ZustĂ€nden zurĂŒckzufĂŒhren ist. Die empirische Forschung zu epistemischer NormativitĂ€t ist noch in ihren Kinderschuhen, so dass es weitere Studien bedarf, um das kindliche VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischer NormativitĂ€t vollstĂ€ndig zu verstehen

    Children's developing understanding of the normative dimension of others' assertions

    Get PDF
    Until now, psychology and empirical research have focused on the ontogeny of moral and conventional norms, whereas theoretical (epistemic) norms received little attention. While the former regulates the way of acting and human interactions in society, the latter describes the norms of human beliefs and knowledge. Epistemic norms are fundamental for our theoretical reasoning, gaining cultural knowledge and our understanding of truth. Speech acts are of crucial importance in the field of epistemic normativity, as they are closely entwined with epistemic norms. Therefore, the competence to evaluate claims of others is of crucial importance for people. Only with this ability can we distinguish true from false statements and recognize whether others are adhering to or violating epistemic norms. Norms contain obligations, but also entitlements, which constitute a complex normative construct. This complexity develops from the fact that entitlements are equally linked to obligations of others: if a person is entitled to assert his or her knowledge (because the knowledge is justified by sufficient evidence), this implies that others are obliged to grant him this right. If they violated their obligation, it would be a norm transgression. The objective of the present dissertation was to investigate children’s understanding of epistemic normativity, focusing on the understanding of speech acts. In Study 1, their understanding of the correctness or incorrectness of epistemic speech acts in the form of knowledge claims ("I know where X is!") was investigated. Study 2 addressed both the question of whether children understand that knowledge entitles a person to perform speech acts and whether they defend this right. Study 3 examined the understanding of moral dimension of incorrect factual claims ("This is an X!", although it is a Y) in two ways: Study 3a aimed to test whether children included the consequences of a false factual speech act in their evaluation and whether they rated a speech act that would lead to harmful consequences more negatively than a speech act that would only result in harmless consequences. Study 3b investigated whether children take into account the intentions of a speaker and evaluate the wrong speech action of a speaker with bad intentions more negatively than that of a speaker with good intentions, whereby both speech acts caused the same harmful consequences. In order to answer these questions, interview studies (Studies 1 and 3) and a behavioral counter-protest paradigm (Study 2) were used. In all studies, hand puppets performed the speech acts. The dissertation examined children between the ages of three and five. Both younger (3- to 4.5-year-olds) and older (4.6- to 5.11-year-olds) children accepted correct knowledge claims that corresponded to the observable reality. But only the older age group could reliably reject incorrect knowledge claims that did not match reality. However, some of the younger children could both reject the incorrect knowledge claims and give valid explanations for the evaluation of the speech act. Thus, those competent children were both able to categorize knowledge speech acts and to ascribe knowledge and ignorance, respectively, to the speaker (Study 1). Moreover, it was found that children at the age of three understand non-epistemic entitlements, that is, they defended the right of a person to express true facts by protesting against the unjustifiably criticizing puppet. However, only 5-year-olds were able to apply this protest behavior to epistemic entitlements. It is not before this age that children understand a person’s right to assert knowledge that is based on good evidence (Study 2). It was also found that children from the age of four to five understand the moral dimension of incorrect factual claims. Children rated the incorrect factual claim of the puppet more negatively if they anticipated harmful consequences than if the consequences would have been harmless. They also judged the incorrect factual claim of the puppet with bad intentions more negative than that of the puppet with good intentions. Thus, they placed the intention of the puppets above the harmful consequence to be expected by the false factual claim. With the three studies, the dissertation showed that an understanding of epistemic normativity and of speech acts of both epistemic ("I know X!") and normative nature gradually develops at the age of four to five years. Finally, children at this age recognize the social-normative component of epistemic states of others and consider knowledge from a normative perspective. However, it also turned out that children develop their understanding of epistemic norms much later than their understanding of practical norms, which is attributable to the complexity of epistemic states. Empirical research on epistemic normativity is still in its early stages, thus further studies are needed to fully understand children's understanding of epistemic normativity.Bis jetzt lag in der Psychologie und der empirischen Forschung der Fokus auf der Entstehung von moralischen und konventionellen Normen, wohingegen theoretischen (epistemischen) Normen nur wenig Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wurde. WĂ€hrend die ersteren Handlungsweisen sowie das menschliche Miteinander in der Gesellschaft regeln, beschreiben letztere die Normen der menschlichen Überzeugungen und des Wissens. Epistemische Normen sind fundamental fĂŒr unser theoretisches Denken, das Erlangen von kulturellem Wissen und fĂŒr unser VerstĂ€ndnis von Wahrheit. Sprechakte sind im Bereich der epistemischen NormativitĂ€t von entscheidender Wichtigkeit, da sie eng mit epistemischen Normen verbunden sind. Aus diesem Grund ist die Kompetenz Behauptungen anderer bewerten zu können fĂŒr Menschen von großer Bedeutung. Nur mit dieser FĂ€higkeit können wir wahre von falschen Aussagen unterscheiden und erkennen, ob andere epistemische Normen einhalten oder verletzen. Normen beinhalten Verpflichtungen, aber auch Berechtigungen, welche ein komplexes normatives Konstrukt darstellen. Diese KomplexitĂ€t entsteht dadurch, dass Berechtigungen gleichermaßen mit Verpflichtungen anderer verbunden sind: wenn eine Person berechtigt ist ihr Wissen zu Ă€ußern (da es durch ausreichende Evidenz begrĂŒndet ist), bringt dies mit sich, dass andere verpflichtet sind, ihr dieses Recht zuzugestehen. Widersetzten sie sich ihrer Verpflichtung, wĂ€re das eine Normverletzung. Die vorliegende Dissertation hatte zum Ziel das kindliche VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischen Normen mit Fokus auf das VerstĂ€ndnis von Sprechakten zu untersuchen. In Studie 1 sollte ihr VerstĂ€ndnis fĂŒr die Korrektheit oder Inkorrektheit von epistemischen Sprechakten in Form von Wissensbehauptungen („Ich weiß wo X ist!“) untersucht werden. Studie 2 ging der Frage nach, ob Kinder sowohl verstehen, dass Wissen eine Person berechtigt Sprechakte auszufĂŒhren als auch, ob sie dieses Recht verteidigen. Studie 3 untersuchte die moralische Dimension von inkorrekten Faktenaussagen („Das ist ein X!“, obwohl es ein Y ist). Dieses VerstĂ€ndnis wurde in zweifacher Hinsicht untersucht. In Studie 3a sollte getestet werden, ob Kinder die Konsequenzen eines falschen Sprechaktes in ihre Evaluierung miteinbeziehen und eine Sprechhandlung, die zu schĂ€dlichen Konsequenzen fĂŒhren wĂŒrden, negativer bewerten als einen Sprechakt, der harmlose Folgen haben wĂŒrde. Studie 3b sollte untersuchen, ob Kinder die Intentionen eines Sprechers berĂŒcksichtigen und die falsche Sprechhandlung eines Sprechers mit schlechter Intention negativer bewerten als die eines Sprechers mit guter Intention, wobei beide Sprechakte dieselben schĂ€dlichen Konsequenzen auslösen wĂŒrden. Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragestellungen wurden zum einen Interviewstudien (Studie 1 und 3) und zum anderen ein verhaltensorientiertes Gegenprotest-Paradigma (Studie 2) eingesetzt. In allen Studien ĂŒbten Handpuppen die Sprechakte aus. Die Dissertation untersuchte Kinder im Alter von drei bis fĂŒnf Jahren. Sowohl jĂŒngere (3- bis 4,5-jĂ€hrige) als auch Ă€ltere (4,6- bis 5,11-jĂ€hrige) Kinder akzeptierten richtige Wissensbehauptungen, die der beobachtbaren RealitĂ€t entsprachen. Aber nur die Ă€ltere Altersgruppe konnte zuverlĂ€ssig inkorrekte Wissensbehauptungen, die nicht der RealitĂ€t entsprachen, ablehnen. Jedoch konnte ein Teil der jĂŒngeren Kinder sowohl die inkorrekten Wissensbehauptungen ablehnen als auch valide ErklĂ€rungen fĂŒr die Bewertung des Sprechaktes geben (Studie 1). Des Weiteren zeigte sich, dass Kinder im Alter von drei Jahren nicht-epistemische Berechtigungen verstehen, das heißt sie verteidigten das Recht einer Person wahre Fakten zu Ă€ußern, indem sie gegen die zu Unrecht kritisierende Puppe protestierten. Allerdings konnten erst FĂŒnfjĂ€hrige dieses Protestverhalten auf epistemische Berechtigungen anwenden. Erst in diesem Alter verstehen Kinder das Recht einer Person Wissen zu Ă€ußern, wenn dieses auf guter Evidenz beruht (Studie 2). Zudem zeigte sich, dass Kinder im Alter von vier bis fĂŒnf Jahren die moralische Dimension von inkorrekten Faktenaussagen verstehen. Kinder bewerteten die inkorrekte Faktenbehauptung der Puppe negativer, wenn sie schĂ€dliche Folgen voraussahen als wenn die Folgen harmlos gewesen wĂ€ren. Ebenso beurteilten sie die inkorrekte Faktenbehauptung der Puppe mit schlechten Absichten negativer als die der Puppe mit guten Absichten. Somit stellten sie die Intention der Puppen ĂŒber die schĂ€dliche Konsequenz, die durch die falsche Faktenaussage zu antizipieren war. Mit den drei Studien, konnte in der Dissertation gezeigt werden, dass sich im Alter von vier bis fĂŒnf Jahren ein VerstĂ€ndnis fĂŒr epistemische NormativitĂ€t und fĂŒr Sprechakte sowohl epistemischer („Ich weiß X!“) als auch normativer Art entwickelt. Kinder in diesem Alter erkennen schließlich die sozial-normative Komponente von epistemischen ZustĂ€nden anderer und betrachten Wissen unter einer normativen Sichtweise. Es zeigt sich allerdings auch, dass Kinder das VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischen Normen weitaus spĂ€ter entwickeln als das VerstĂ€ndnis von praktischen Normen, was auf die KomplexitĂ€t von epistemischen ZustĂ€nden zurĂŒckzufĂŒhren ist. Die empirische Forschung zu epistemischer NormativitĂ€t ist noch in ihren Kinderschuhen, so dass es weitere Studien bedarf, um das kindliche VerstĂ€ndnis von epistemischer NormativitĂ€t vollstĂ€ndig zu verstehen

    How Landscapes Make Science: Italian National Narrative, The Great Mediterranean, and Giuseppe Sergi’s Biological Myth

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    The perception and representation of landscape are not natural facts but are cultural constructions of human agents. In this chapter, I aim at deconstructing the role of pre-classical archaeology of Eastern Mediterranean in the process of Italian nation building between the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. In particular, I focus on how a substantial group of Italian intellectuals deployed archeological discoveries to construct the Mediterranean as a representational space, which eventually served as a platform for their nationalistic political discourses. To this end, I discuss the spreading of these new conceptions in the Italian cultural debate at large. A prominent figure in this debate was Giuseppe Sergi. By reconstructing his views on the connections between national identity and biology, I demonstrate the considerable performative effect of the Mediterranean as a symbolic space and source of meaning on Italian culture. Furthermore, I argue that this new role of the Mediterranean resulted from a negotiation between the archaeological discovery of pre-classical past and the political aspirations of those scholars who opposed Italian foreign and interior politics of the period

    Advanced Decision-Oriented Software for the Management of Hazardous Substances: Part III - Decision Support and Expert Systems: Uses and Users

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    Many industrial processes, products, and residuals such as hazardous and toxic substances, pose risks to man and are harmful to the basic life-support system of the environment. In order to reduce risks to individuals and society as a whole, and to ensure a sustainable use of the biosphere for present and future generations, it is imperative that these substances are managed in a safe and systematic manner. The aim of this project is to provide software tools which can be used by those engaged in the management of the environment, industrial production, products, and waste streams, and hazardous substances and wastes in particular. This set of tools is designed for a broad group of users, including non-technical users. Its primary purpose is to improve the factual basis for decision making, and to structure the decision-making process in order to make it more consistent, by providing easy access and allowing efficient use of methods of analysis and information management which are normally restricted to a small group of technical experts
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