Sospechas y evidencia: revisión de las causas de la extinción local y del declive de los mejillones de agua dulce

Sospechas y evidencia: revisión de las causas de la extinción local y del declive de los mejillones de agua dulce La conservación de la biodiversidad requiere pruebas fiables de las causas de extinción local. Utilizando los mejillones de agua dulce como ejemplo, llevamos a cabo esta valoración sistemática, la primera que se ha realizado, de la evidencia de peligro para cualquier grupo de organismos. Revisamos artículos que publicaban conclusiones sobre las causas de las extinciones locales, evaluando la calidad de las pruebas según una escala objetiva. Encontramos que únicamente el 48% de los estudios presentaban relaciones plausibles entre la extinción local y sus causas. Los análisis carecían de resolución, dado que más del 75% de los estudios considerados (n = 124) sugerían múltiples causas de extinción local. Los estudios llevados a cabo en grandes áreas, y los que presentaban menos pruebas, son los que abogaban por un mayor número de causas. A pesar de las evidencias, que frecuentemente eran débiles, existía un acuerdo sustancial sobre la identidad de las causas; la más frecuente era la destrucción o alteración del hábitat, pero se postulaban muchas más. A pesar de que la extinción local de los mejillones de agua dulce es indudablemente una realidad, las pruebas podrían ser más consistentes. En estos animales y en muchos otros, la evidencia de las causas de su extinción local a menudo ha sido circunstancial. Presentamos aquí un estudio sistemático que pueden utilizar los ecólogos, para fortalecer las evidencias concernientes a las causas de las extinciones locales. También hemos reflejado la relación entre la fortaleza de la evidencia y las prioridades económicas de las investigaciones. Palabras clave: Evidencia, Extinción, Extinción local, Agua dulce, Mejillones.Conservation of biodiversity requires reliable evidence of the causes of extirpation. Using freshwater mussels as an example, we performed the first–ever systematic assessment of the evidence for endangerment of any group of organisms. We surveyed articles publishing conclusions about the cause of local extirpation by assessing the quality of evidence on an objective scale. We found that only 48% of studies presented plausible links between extirpation and causes. Analyses lacked resolution since more than 75% of all studies considered (n = 124) suggested multiple causes of extirpation. Studies performed over large areas and those presenting less evidence postulated the most causes. Despite the frequently weak evidence, there was substantial agreement on the identity of causes; the most frequent was habitat destruction or alteration but many others were postulated. Although mussel extirpation is undoubtedly real, the evidence could be stronger. In these animals and others, evidence of the causes of extirpation has often been circumstantial. We present a systematic approach ecologists can use to strengthen the evidence concerning the causes of extirpation. We also reflect on the link between the strength of evidence and research funding priorities. Key words: Evidence, Extinction, Extirpation, Freshwater, Mussels.La conservación de la biodiversidad requiere pruebas fiables de las causas de extinción local. Utilizando los mejillones de agua dulce como ejemplo, llevamos a cabo esta valoración sistemática, la primera que se ha realizado, de la evidencia de peligro para cualquier grupo de organismos. Revisamos artículos que publicaban conclusiones sobre las causas de las extinciones locales, evaluando la calidad de las pruebas según una escala objetiva. Encontramos que únicamente el 48% de los estudios presentaban relaciones plausibles entre la extinción local y sus causas. Los análisis carecían de resolución, dado que más del 75% de los estudios considerados (n = 124) sugerían múltiples causas de extinción local. Los estudios llevados a cabo en grandes áreas, y los que presentaban menos pruebas, son los que abogaban por un mayor número de causas. A pesar de las evidencias, que frecuentemente eran débiles, existía un acuerdo sustancial sobre la identidad de las causas; la más frecuente era la destrucción o alteración del hábitat, pero se postulaban muchas más. A pesar de que la extinción local de los mejillones de agua dulce es indudablemente una realidad, las pruebas podrían ser más consistentes. En estos animales y en muchos otros, la evidencia de las causas de su extinción local a menudo ha sido circunstancial. Presentamos aquí un estudio sistemático que pueden utilizar los ecólogos, para fortalecer las evidencias concernientes a las causas de las extinciones locales. También hemos reflejado la relación entre la fortaleza de la evidencia y las prioridades económicas de las investigaciones. Palabras clave: Evidencia, Extinción, Extinción local, Agua dulce, Mejillones

Drying Corn with Coal on Iowa Farms

A study was conducted to determine the feasibility of using Iowa coal as a fuel source for on-farm corn drying. Two furnaces tested operate at 50 to 55% efficiency. Two existing on-farm systems were described. A cost analysis showed energy costs for coal were less than for propane, but heating system costs are about equal and do not favor a shift to coal

Quantum Repeater with Encoding

We propose a new approach to implement quantum repeaters for long distance quantum communication. Our protocol generates a backbone of encoded Bell pairs and uses the procedure of classical error correction during simultaneous entanglement connection. We illustrate that the repeater protocol with simple Calderbank-Shor-Steane (CSS) encoding can significantly extend the communication distance, while still maintaining a fast key generation rate.Comment: 11 pages, 5 figures (add new section III with an explicit example and new appendix A

Distributed Quantum Computation Based-on Small Quantum Registers

We describe and analyze an efficient register-based hybrid quantum computation scheme. Our scheme is based on probabilistic, heralded optical connection among local five-qubit quantum registers. We assume high fidelity local unitary operations within each register, but the error probability for initialization, measurement, and entanglement generation can be very high (~5%). We demonstrate that with a reasonable time overhead our scheme can achieve deterministic non-local coupling gates between arbitrary two registers with very high fidelity, limited only by the imperfections from the local unitary operation. We estimate the clock cycle and the effective error probability for implementation of quantum registers with ion-traps or nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers. Our new scheme capitalizes on a new efficient two-level pumping scheme that in principle can create Bell pairs with arbitrarily high fidelity. We introduce a Markov chain model to study the stochastic process of entanglement pumping and map it to a deterministic process. Finally we discuss requirements for achieving fault-tolerant operation with our register-based hybrid scheme, and also present an alternative approach to fault-tolerant preparation of GHZ states.Comment: 22 Pages, 23 Figures and 1 Table (updated references

Fast Quantum Modular Exponentiation

We present a detailed analysis of the impact on modular exponentiation of architectural features and possible concurrent gate execution. Various arithmetic algorithms are evaluated for execution time, potential concurrency, and space tradeoffs. We find that, to exponentiate an n-bit number, for storage space 100n (twenty times the minimum 5n), we can execute modular exponentiation two hundred to seven hundred times faster than optimized versions of the basic algorithms, depending on architecture, for n=128. Addition on a neighbor-only architecture is limited to O(n) time when non-neighbor architectures can reach O(log n), demonstrating that physical characteristics of a computing device have an important impact on both real-world running time and asymptotic behavior. Our results will help guide experimental implementations of quantum algorithms and devices.Comment: to appear in PRA 71(5); RevTeX, 12 pages, 12 figures; v2 revision is substantial, with new algorithmic variants, much shorter and clearer text, and revised equation formattin

Surface code quantum computing by lattice surgery

In recent years, surface codes have become a leading method for quantum error correction in theoretical large scale computational and communications architecture designs. Their comparatively high fault-tolerant thresholds and their natural 2-dimensional nearest neighbour (2DNN) structure make them an obvious choice for large scale designs in experimentally realistic systems. While fundamentally based on the toric code of Kitaev, there are many variants, two of which are the planar- and defect- based codes. Planar codes require fewer qubits to implement (for the same strength of error correction), but are restricted to encoding a single qubit of information. Interactions between encoded qubits are achieved via transversal operations, thus destroying the inherent 2DNN nature of the code. In this paper we introduce a new technique enabling the coupling of two planar codes without transversal operations, maintaining the 2DNN of the encoded computer. Our lattice surgery technique comprises splitting and merging planar code surfaces, and enables us to perform universal quantum computation (including magic state injection) while removing the need for braided logic in a strictly 2DNN design, and hence reduces the overall qubit resources for logic operations. Those resources are further reduced by the use of a rotated lattice for the planar encoding. We show how lattice surgery allows us to distribute encoded GHZ states in a more direct (and overhead friendly) manner, and how a demonstration of an encoded CNOT between two distance 3 logical states is possible with 53 physical qubits, half of that required in any other known construction in 2D.Comment: Published version. 29 pages, 18 figure

Modeling Gravitational Recoil Using Numerical Relativity

We review the developments in modeling gravitational recoil from merging black-hole binaries and introduce a new set of 20 simulations to test our previously proposed empirical formula for the recoil. The configurations are chosen to represent generic binaries with unequal masses and precessing spins. Results of these simulations indicate that the recoil formula is accurate to within a few km/s in the similar mass-ratio regime for the out-of-plane recoil.Comment: corrections to text, 11 pages, 1 figur

Momentum constraint relaxation

Full relativistic simulations in three dimensions invariably develop runaway modes that grow exponentially and are accompanied by violations of the Hamiltonian and momentum constraints. Recently, we introduced a numerical method (Hamiltonian relaxation) that greatly reduces the Hamiltonian constraint violation and helps improve the quality of the numerical model. We present here a method that controls the violation of the momentum constraint. The method is based on the addition of a longitudinal component to the traceless extrinsic curvature generated by a vector potential w_i, as outlined by York. The components of w_i are relaxed to solve approximately the momentum constraint equations, pushing slowly the evolution toward the space of solutions of the constraint equations. We test this method with simulations of binary neutron stars in circular orbits and show that effectively controls the growth of the aforementioned violations. We also show that a full numerical enforcement of the constraints, as opposed to the gentle correction of the momentum relaxation scheme, results in the development of instabilities that stop the runs shortly.Comment: 17 pages, 10 figures. New numerical tests and references added. More detailed description of the algorithms are provided. Final published versio

Distributed Quantum Computation Architecture Using Semiconductor Nanophotonics

In a large-scale quantum computer, the cost of communications will dominate the performance and resource requirements, place many severe demands on the technology, and constrain the architecture. Unfortunately, fault-tolerant computers based entirely on photons with probabilistic gates, though equipped with "built-in" communication, have very large resource overheads; likewise, computers with reliable probabilistic gates between photons or quantum memories may lack sufficient communication resources in the presence of realistic optical losses. Here, we consider a compromise architecture, in which semiconductor spin qubits are coupled by bright laser pulses through nanophotonic waveguides and cavities using a combination of frequent probabilistic and sparse determinstic entanglement mechanisms. The large photonic resource requirements incurred by the use of probabilistic gates for quantum communication are mitigated in part by the potential high-speed operation of the semiconductor nanophotonic hardware. The system employs topological cluster-state quantum error correction for achieving fault-tolerance. Our results suggest that such an architecture/technology combination has the potential to scale to a system capable of attacking classically intractable computational problems.Comment: 29 pages, 7 figures; v2: heavily revised figures improve architecture presentation, additional detail on physical parameters, a few new reference

Path Selection for Quantum Repeater Networks

Quantum networks will support long-distance quantum key distribution (QKD) and distributed quantum computation, and are an active area of both experimental and theoretical research. Here, we present an analysis of topologically complex networks of quantum repeaters composed of heterogeneous links. Quantum networks have fundamental behavioral differences from classical networks; the delicacy of quantum states makes a practical path selection algorithm imperative, but classical notions of resource utilization are not directly applicable, rendering known path selection mechanisms inadequate. To adapt Dijkstra's algorithm for quantum repeater networks that generate entangled Bell pairs, we quantify the key differences and define a link cost metric, seconds per Bell pair of a particular fidelity, where a single Bell pair is the resource consumed to perform one quantum teleportation. Simulations that include both the physical interactions and the extensive classical messaging confirm that Dijkstra's algorithm works well in a quantum context. Simulating about three hundred heterogeneous paths, comparing our path cost and the total work along the path gives a coefficient of determination of 0.88 or better.Comment: 12 pages, 8 figure