Structure and function of the moth mushroom body

The mushroom bodies are paired, high-order neuropils in the insect brain involved in complex functions such as learning and memory, sensory integration, context recognition and olfactory processing. This thesis explores the structure of the mushroom bodies in the noctuid moth Spodoptera littoralis using neuroanatomical staining methods, immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy, and investigates how the intrinsic neurons of the mushroom body, the Kenyon cells, respond to olfactory stimulation of the antennae using whole-cell patch clamp technique. The mushroom body in S. littoralis contains about 4,000 Kenyon cells, and consists of a calyx, pedunculus and two lobes, one medial and one vertical. The calyx houses dendritic branches of Kenyon cells and the pedunculus and lobes contain the axons and terminals of these neurons respectively. The calyx is doubled and concentrically divided into a broad peripheral zone, which receives input from antennal lobe projection neurons, and a narrow inner zone, which receives yet unidentified input. The lobes are parsed into three longitudinal divisions, which contain a separate subset of Kenyon cells each. The Kenyon cells are divided into three morphological classes, I-III. Class I Kenyon cells have widely branching spiny dendritic arborisations in both zones of the calyx and occupy the two most posterior subdivisions of the lobes called α/β and α´/β´. Class II Kenyon cells have narrow clawed dendritic trees in the calyx and invade the most anterior division in the lobes, called γ. Class III Kenyon cells have clawed, diffusely branching dendrites in the calyx and provide a separate system of axons and terminal branches, partly detached from the rest of the mushroom body, called the Y tract and lobelets. Kenyon cells within the classes display differential labeling with antisera against neuroactive substances. Kenyon cells make synaptic contact with one another and with other neuron types in the mushroom body. Extrinsic inhibitory and putative modulatory neurons were identified. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings revealed that Kenyon cells exhibit broadly tuned subthreshold activation by odor stimulation and a few cells responded with action potentials to specific biologically relevant odor combinations

Educational Reforms & Challenges in Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia’s traditional export of relatively low-skilled products is facing increased competition. There is therefore a general need to upgrade production in the region, which requires a more skilled and educated labour force. Historically, education has not been emphasized in Southeast Asia but there are indications that this is about to change. This paper starts with a general discussion on the educational situation and changes in the region. It continues with a close look at three ASEAN countries – Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore – with special focus on some of the obstacles for reforms, such as financial and political constraints, that are present in these countries.Education; Southeast Asia; Structural Change; Economic Crisis

Economic Recovery in Indonesia: The Challenge of Combining FDI and Regional Development

Indonesia has been severely hurt by the recent economic crisis, which has been accompanied by social tensions. Still, there are reasons to be optimistic about Indonesia's future. The economic crisis may have bottomed out and the difficult transition to democracy has started. For a sustainable long-term recovery, it is essential that Indonesia is able to attract FDI inflows, and manages to achieve a reasonably equal spatial development of growth. Unfortunately, there is a possible contradiction between FDI and even regional development since FDI tends to locate in concentrated clusters. This paper discusses some requirements for a long-term recovery of Indonesia, which special focus on FDI and an even spatial development.Indonesia; Economic Growth; Foreign Direct Investment; Regional Development

STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES AND EQUITIZATION IN VIETNAM

Equitization (privatization) has been at the core of the policy debate in Vietnam over the last decade but the government’s attitude seems ambivalent. On the one hand, equitization is emphasized in policy statements. On the other, the progress on equitization has been relatively modest and SOEs continue to dominate the Vietnamese economy. This paper examines SOEs and the equitization process in Vietnam. We compare the development with guidelines from economic theory and with lessons from privatization programs in other countries. Equitization in Vietnam is found to target small SOEs and no larger ones, and it does not address the efficiency problem with state ownership since the state typically remains a controlling share of the equitized SOEs. Moreover, economic theory and experience from other countries suggest that the Vietnamese approach with diffused ownership in SOEs and in equitized firms; equitization to employees and management; and little participation of strategic investors, might not be the most efficient approach to public ownership and to equitization. We argue in this paper that Vietnam still has an opportunity to change its approach towards SOEs and equitization and thereby secure increased efficiency and economic growth.State Owned Enterprises; Privatization; Equitization; Vietnam

WHO DO YOU TRUST? ETHNICITY AND TRUST IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Bosnia and Herzegovina has experienced a turbulent post-independence transition. It can be argued that the level of trust is likely to have been negatively affected by this turbulence and that it is important to restore trust to achieve sustainable political and economic development. This paper looks at trust in Bosnia and Herzegovina and puts a special focus on the role of ethnicity. We find generalized trust to be low in Bosnia and Herzegovina and it seems to have declined in recent years. Moreover, generalized trust is negatively affected by the degree of ethnic heterogeneity in the region. However, a further and more detailed examination of trust reveals a more complex relationship between ethnicity and trust: people tend to show low levels of trust in all other people irrespective of their ethnic belongings. We argue that ethnic distribution might capture some other regional specific characteristics that also affect the level of trust. One possibility is that ethnically heterogeneous regions tended to be severely affected by the war and that this has negatively affected the level of trust towards all people outside of a person’s family.Trust; Social Capital; Ethnicity; Southeast Europe; Bosnia and Herzegovina

HOST COUNTRY IMPACTS OF INWARD FDI: WHY SUCH DIFFERENT ANSWERS?

A substantial literature has grown up around the issue of how inward direct investment affects host countries. On almost every aspect of this question, there seems to be a wide range of empirical results in academic literature, and little sign of convergence. It is our purpose here to try to understand why contradictory results seem to be found by different investigators. Is it that the statistical techniques are different? Or are the countries they examine different? Or are they asking different questions under the same labels of wages, productivity, or spillovers? We try to answer these questions in two ways. One is to review the individual studies themselves to clarify the questions asked and the data used. The other is to survey studies on data for Indonesia, which cover a long period and are detailed and accessible, to test the implications of different definitions and methods.FDI; Wages; Productivity; Spillovers

BIRTH OF A NATION: POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT IN TIMOR-LESTE

Timor-Leste is among the world’s poorest countries and poverty reduction is high on the country’s policy agenda. The National Development Plan emphasizes a poverty reduction strategy based on economic growth and a focus on improvements in the health and education sector. This paper describes and analyses poverty and development in Timor-Leste. We find that progress has taken place but the situation remains troublesome with high poverty, low levels of education and large remaining problems in the health sector. Hence, further efforts are needed to improve upon the situation. Economic growth is fragile and too low to generate the necessary resources for such policies. However, unexpected oil revenues seem to be invested wisely and might provide the required means for sustainable poverty alleviationTimor-Leste; Economic Development; Poverty; Education; Health

POPULATION GROWTH AND JOB CREATION IN TIMOR-LESTE

Timor-Leste began its independence as one of the poorest nations in the world. Substantial progress has been made thereafter but the challenges for future development are numerous. High population growth and modest growth of GDP means that per capita income is declining and that the extent of poverty is increasing. For this situation to change, income opportunities other than those provided by subsistence agriculture are needed. Considering the low level of education and the keen competition for skilled personnel this, however, is difficult. So far, it seems that most skilled workers are being absorbed by the public sector and that this is pushing up the already high skilled wage level. That, in turn, affects the competitiveness of the private sector negatively and acts as an obstacle to the creation of employment opportunities outside agriculture.Timor-Leste; Job Creation; Development; Industry

THE CAMBODIAN ECONOMY: READY FOR TAKE-OFF?

Cambodia is facing the familiar problem of achieving sustained rates of economic growth that could help it alleviate widespread poverty. Against the background of some encouraging developments, and quite a few that are not equally reassuring, we argue that any push for development needs to consider both agriculture and industry. This is so as both labour absorption, primarily in secondary sector activities, and productivity growth in agriculture are necessary to lift large segments of the population out of the poverty associated with subsistence agriculture, landlessness and informal sector activities. Given that the major success story of the past decade, the garments and textile industry, is under threat, we conclude that Cambodia is yet to achieve an economic take off.Cambodia; economic development; agriculture; industry

THE OIL RESOURCES OF TIMOR-LESTE: CURSE OR BLESSING?

Timor-Leste is among the youngest nations in the world. It started its independence under difficult circumstances: poverty is widespread, education is poor, the industrial sector is non-existent, and political turbulence is on the rise. On the positive side, future oil revenues are predicted to be substantial, which could potentially be of large help in Timor-Leste’s strive for development. This paper examines critically the possibility for Timor-Leste to use oil revenues to achieve economic development. It describes how difficult it is to estimate the future revenues because of volatile prices, territorial disputes, and insufficient seismological mapping. It continues with a discussion of the “resource curse”: the difficulty of combining natural resources with economic development. Moreover, the particular challenges for Timor Leste’s development are dealt with at some length, as are possible ways to avoid the resource curse.Timor-Leste; Oil; Resource Curse; Economic Development