The grand design : American foreign trade policy, 1960-1968.

This study analyzed the history of American foreign trade policy during the administrations of Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Four levels of analysis (international, governmental, societal, and individual) provided a framework to explore two historiograhical problems: the decision-making power structure of U.S. trade policy formulation and the aims, motives, and results of this policy. The campaign for the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 served as a basis for testing four models of decision-making: bureaucratic, corporatist, interest group, and inter-branch. The models were tested in the specific issue areas of textiles, lumber, oil, and carpets and glass. These commodities also were used to validate the interpretations of the hegemony or the comparative-advantage schools of thought regarding the aims and effects of American trade policy. Under the auspices of the Kennedy Round negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, trade relations with the European Economic Community were the overall focus of the debate between the two schools, but bilateral trade with Japan, Asian less-developed countries, Canada, and Venezuela assumed primary importance depending on the commodity. The inter-branch model, and to a lesser extent pressure from interest groups, was found to determine decision-making on trade matters. The assumptions of the comparative-advantage school generally were most accurate in describing the motives and results of U.S. trade policy

Ventilation of Dutch schools; an integral approach to improve design

Indoor Air Quality and thermal climate in schools is very important as it has a direct relation to the health and performance of the pupils. The status quo in the Netherlands is presented (e.g. average CO2 levels in schools, quality of ventilation). The goal of a first study was to evaluate the performance of exhaust-only ventilation systems. The performance was rather disappointed there were a lot of problems and insufficient situations found. During the next years different master students [1,2,3,4] together with the staff of Technische Universiteit Eindhoven were researching different aspects of the problem and trying to find solutions. In a following study, 6 schools with different ventilation systems were studied. Main conclusions from these studies were: IAQ in the evaluated schools did not meet the requirements and more ventilation was essential for better IAQ. A new integrated approach to design adequate solutions for ventilation of school buildings was developed. First design results are described in the paper

Workshops for integral design of innovative roofs

Traditionally, the installation of accessories on roofs is the domain of roofers, having the traditional knowledge and experience of successful mounting and integrating existing roof products in both new and renovated roofs. In the current roofing situation, many new products are added to the building design and building process. As a result many problems occurred, resulting in poor quality, unsafe working conditions and high repair costs. Today there is a need from the roofers for a more active role not only in the constructing process, but also in the design process; Collaborative Engineering. The active role for the roofer is therefore related to the several aspects of the context in which the roofer has to participate. The result should lead to innovative roofs, roofs that are producing sustainable energy and are active in the interaction with the thermal environment. First experiments to find a format for supporting Design Collaboration, started in 2004 with workshops for design- teams including participants with the same educational background. In 2005, a first set up was done for design teams with participants with different educational backgrounds. These workshops are coupling a concrete task from practice and research focusing on the roofs where there is a lack of innovative designs, caused by a sub-optimal interaction between solutions and application in design practice. The process where actors from different disciplines work together to develop a (new) product is called Collaborative Engineering (CE). Workshops are used to offer a collaborative context to professionals and to determine in steps an adaptive method to analyse and improve the design collaboration related to knowledge exchange. The project, as part of the European 6th framework research EURACTIVE ROOFer, resulted in a series of workshops for architects and roofers to develop active roofs for integral sustainable comfort (HVAC)- system design, engineering and installation. The workshops gave first insights into the knowledge exchange and knowledge development between the participants. This paper describes the methodical backgrounds, the set-up of the EURACTIVE ROOFer-workshop and first results related to the knowledge management aspects

Integral open building design methodology

There is a growing awareness of sustainability that leads towards knowledge transfer and research between companies and the Dutch knowledge and research institutes within the building industry. The principles of the IFD (Industrial Flexible Dismountable) concept aim at an integrated approach within the design process to reach a maximum level of integration between designers from different disciplines. A newly developed methodology for structuring integral design processes enables design team support during designing and further stimulates exchange of ideas and concepts. This approach is tested within a professional context of a building design project. To support architects more effectively with their tasks the domain-independent integral design methodology was developed in the lines with Open building This specific multi-disciplinary approach helpd architecture and engineering. We think that the proposed Integral Design methodology is a possible solution for support of the design team in the conceptual phase of building design

Workshops for integral design of innovative roofs

Traditionally, the installation of accessories on roofs is the domain of roofers, having the traditional knowledge and experience of successful mounting and integrating existing roof products in both new and renovated roofs. In the current roofing situation, many new products are added to the building design and building process. As a result many problems occurred, resulting in poor quality, unsafe working conditions and high repair costs. Today there is a need from the roofers for a more active role not only in the constructing process, but also in the design process; Collaborative Engineering. The active role for the roofer is therefore related to the several aspects of the context in which the roofer has to participate. The result should lead to innovative roofs, roofs that are producing sustainable energy and are active in the interaction with the thermal environment. First experiments to find a format for supporting Design Collaboration, started in 2004 with workshops for design- teams including participants with the same educational background. In 2005, a first set up was done for design teams with participants with different educational backgrounds. These workshops are coupling a concrete task from practice and research focusing on the roofs where there is a lack of innovative designs, caused by a sub-optimal interaction between solutions and application in design practice. The process where actors from different disciplines work together to develop a (new) product is called Collaborative Engineering (CE). Workshops are used to offer a collaborative context to professionals and to determine in steps an adaptive method to analyse and improve the design collaboration related to knowledge exchange. The project, as part of the European 6th framework research EURACTIVE ROOFer, resulted in a series of workshops for architects and roofers to develop active roofs for integral sustainable comfort (HVAC)- system design, engineering and installation. The workshops gave first insights into the knowledge exchange and knowledge development between the participants. This paper describes the methodical backgrounds, the set-up of the EURACTIVE ROOFer-workshop and first results related to the knowledge management aspects

Double facades a more sustainable solution than a optimal single facade

Facade parameters influence the energy flows coming through the facade, in order to optimize the indoor environment for the comfort of the individual building occupant with minimal energy use. How can the facade make optimal use of the free incoming energy flows to maximize the comfort level of the individual building occupant at minimal energy use? The type of façade described as a second skin façade is characterised by a single glass layer on the outside and an isolated façade layer on the inside, which often includes an insulated glass layer. The application of the single glass layer as a second skin around the insulated layer results in an air cavity between these two layers. The property that distinguishes a second skin façade from other DSF is that it relies on natural ventilation of the cavity, in comparison to other facades which use mechanical systems to induce the airflow. The advantage of merely using natural ventilation in the façade cavity is the lower energy consumption. However, it also results in some unresolved issues which require further attention. This project is concerned with the behaviour of a highly complex shaped second skin facade on a Dutch office building, and the thermal comfort impact on the building user. During 3 weeks different measurements were done to determine the main characteristics of the glass and the facade. These measurements were related to earlier measurements done by other buildings with a second skin facade. A key difference between a second skin facade, as well as other climate facades, and more traditional opaque facades is its dynamic behaviour