Immunopathological comparison of in ovo and post-hatch vaccination techniques for infectious bursal disease vaccine in layer chicks

This study was designed to compare immunopathological effects of in ovo vaccination with post-hatch vaccination against IBD in White Leghorn chicks. A total of 189 embryonated eggs were divided into six groups. At day 18 of incubation, groups A–C were administered in ovo with 228E, Winterfield 2512:10/3 and 2512/90:10/2.7, respectively, group D (post-hatch vaccination) and group E as shamed control (for quality evaluation of in ovo vaccination technique), and group F as control. The results showed that antibody titers against IBD detected by ELISA on days 2, 17, and 28 were significantly higher in all in ovo groups as compared to control groups E and F. On day 17, all vaccinated groups (in ovo and post-hatch vaccinated) showed no significant differences in antibody titers among themselves; however, at day 28, only the post-hatch group showed significantly higher antibody titers followed by in ovo vaccinated groups. The cell-mediated immunity determined by PHA-P assay was significantly higher in all vaccinated groups than the non-vaccinated groups. No clinical signs of IBD infection were observed in any of the vaccinated groups. There was only increase in bursa size of groups vaccinated with intermediate plus strains (groups A, C, and D) at day 28. The histopathology showed that all the treatment groups had mild lesions induced by IBD virus in bursa. This study concluded that in ovo vaccination with live IBD vaccines provides protective immunity to the chickens even in the presence of IBD-specific MDA; therefore, the onset of immunity was much earlier than the post-hatch vaccination and in ovo groups also maintained protective immunity against IBD for longer time

Assembly of Smart Microgels and Hybrid Microgels on Graphene Sheets for Catalytic Reduction of Nitroarenes

Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide-acrylic acid) [p(NIPAM-AAc)] microgel was successfully fabricated using the precipitation polymerization method. Silver (Ag) nanoparticles and graphene oxide (G) were used to fabricate the following hybrid microgels: Ag-p(NIPAM-AAc) (Ag-HMG), Ag-G-p(NIPAM-AAc) (Ag-G-HMG), and G-p(NIPAM-AAc) (G-HMG). Ag-HMG, Ag-G-HMG, and G-HMG were characterized using a Zetasizer and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The reduction of a series of different compounds with comparable and distinct chemical structures was catalyzed by synthesized Ag-HMG, Ag-G-HMG, and G-HMG hybrid microgels. The average size of Ag nanoparticles was found to be ~50 nm. Ag nanoparticles were synthesized within microgels attached to G sheets. Ag-p(NIPAM-AAc), Ag-G-p(NIPAM-AAc), and G-p(NIPAM-AAc) hybrid microgels were used for the catalytic reduction of nitroarenes and dyes. By comparing their apparent rate constant (kapp), reduction duration, and percentage reduction, the activity of HMG (hybrid microgel) as a catalyst towards different substrates was investigated. Graphene sheets play role in electron relay among Ag nanoparticles and microgels.publishedVersio

Epidemiology, Zoonotic and Reverse Zoonotic Potential of COVID-19

The demographic patterns of COVID-19 spread can provide clues to develop roadmaps for devising better prevention and control. It is high time to analyze and re-evaluate the zoonotic/reverse zoonotic spread of SARS-CoV-2 globally. To this end, lessons from epidemiology and associated determinants from previous outbreaks of SARS-CoV-1 and MERS need to be cultured and re-visited. Ways to minimize the rates of infection and promote the well-being of the masses need urgent attention owing to the subsequent waves of the global pandemic in most countries. Efforts are being directed for the provision of efficient and cost-effective diagnostics, prophylaxis and therapeutic options for COVID-19. The chapter provides insights, suggesting a potential roadmap for efficiently preventing the future outbreaks of COVID-19, based on the tools of epidemiology, transmission probabilities and public health safety concerns

Acaricidal Potential and Ecotoxicity of Metallic Nano-Pesticides Used against the Major Life Stages of Hyalomma Ticks

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are blood-feeding parasites capable of transmitting diseases to animals (Piroplasmosis) and humans (Congo fever, Lyme disease). The non-judicious use of chemical acaricides has led to the development of acaricide-resistant ticks, making the control of ticks and tick-borne diseases difficult. This study reports the efficacy of magnesium oxide (MgO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) as alternatives to traditional acaricides/pesticides using in vitro tests against major representative stages of Hyalomma ticks. Nanopesticides were chemically synthesized as rods (Fe2O3), stars (ZnO), and spheres (MgO) and were characterized by XRD and SEM analysis. The in vitro bioassays included adult immersion, larval immersion, and larval packet tests. Non-target effects of the nanopesticides were evaluated using snails. The LC90 values of Fe2O3 NPs (4.21, 2.83, 0.89 mg/L) were lowest followed by MgO (4.27, 2.91, 0.93 mg/L) and ZnO (4.49, 3.05, 0.69 mg/L), for the tick adult, larval and egg stages, respectively. Fe2O3 NPs were capable of arresting oviposition and larval hatching in the study ticks in vitro. The snail toxicity experiments revealed minimum to mild off-target effects for all nanopesticides tested. This study is the first to report the comparative efficacy of magnesium, iron, and zinc nanomaterials for toxicity in egg, adult and larval stages of Hyalomma ticks. Further studies of NPs on establishing the efficacy against ticks and safety at host-human-environment interface could lead to promising nanopesticde applications

<em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> and Dairy Udder

Staphylococcus aureus is a major causative agent of intra-mammary infections in dairy animals with potential virulence of surface components, toxins, and extracellular enzymes. About 74% quarter prevalence of S. aureus in bovine udder with overall prevalence exceeding 61% in dairy animals. About 17 different serotypes of dairy originated S. aureus have been reported with 24 virulence coding genes for leukocidins (lukED/lukM), pyrogenic toxin super antigen (PTSAg), haemolysins (hla-hlg), toxic-shock syndrome toxin (tst), enterotoxins (sea-seo, seu), exfoliative toxins (eta, etb), and genes for methicillin (mecA) and penicillin (blaZ) resistance. Attainment of refuge inside the macrophages and neutrophils is a major cause of S. aureus mastitis persistence. Mammary prebiotics and probiotics are recently being used as alternatives to antibiotic for the prevention of mastitis. Literature showed anti- staphylococcus vaccines with different results depending upon types of immunization, route of administration and adjuvant used. Studies has shown that herd specific as well as commercial S. aureus vaccines reduce new infections in dairy animals. Experiments are still in progress for the use of vaccines against S. aureus mastitis with optimal efficacy and reliability. Perhaps, there might be bright future because of highly satisfactory trial results of mastitis vaccines in the lab animals

Assessment of Avermectins-Induced Toxicity in Animals

Macrocyclic lactones, particularly the avermectins, have completely revolutionized the approaches aimed at control of parasites. These avermectins are the most widely used anti-parasitic drugs in veterinary field with sales exceeding one billion US dollars annually. However, before clinical usage, their safety evaluation in the animals is a major critical factor that must be considered. Many studies have reported the negative effects of avermectins like ivermectin, abamectin, doramectin, and eprinomectin on the host animals. These harmful effects arise from avermectins targeting GABA and glutamate-gated chloride channels present both in the parasites and the host animals. In this review, various modes of avermectins action along with the negative effects on the host like nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and endocrine disruption were discussed in detail. Furthermore, other important issues like ecotoxicity, drug resistance, and drug residues in milk associated with avermectins usage were also discussed, which need special attention

Application of Cypermethrin-Coated ZnS and ZnO Nanoparticles against <i>Rhipicephalus</i> Ticks

Rhipicephalus ticks are described as important ticks impacting the costs of livestock rearing and by-products sale. The prevalence and response of ticks towards cypermethrin sprays indicate the need to implement the rational use of acaricides. In our previous studies, ZnO nanoparticles were shown to inhibit the major life-cycle stages of Hyalomma ticks, indicative of promising application of nanomaterials against the hard ticks. The current study was designed to probe into one of alternative options to curtail Rhipicephalus ticks by employing cypermethrin-coated nanoparticles of ZnO (C-ZnO NPs) and ZnS (C-ZnS NPs). The nanocomposites showed a roughly spherical type of morphology and various size dimensions upon characterization using SEM and EDX. Female ovipositioning was declined up to only 48% in ZnS and up to 32% in ZnO NPs even after 28 days in vitro. Similarly, the larval hatching was also impacted, leading to a hatching percentage of 21% and 15% by application of C-ZnS NPs and C-ZnO NPs, respectively. The LC90 in female adult groups were 3.94 mg/L and 4.27 mg/L for the C-ZnO NPs and C-ZnS NPs groups, respectively. Similarly, the larval groups had LC90 of 8.63 and 8.95 mg/L for the C-ZnO NPs and C-ZnS NPs groups. The study is a proof of the concept for incorporating effective and safe nanocomposites as acaricides. The studies on the efficacy and spectrum of non-target effects of nanomaterial-based acaricides can further refine the research on finding novel alternatives for tick control

Assembly of Smart Microgels and Hybrid Microgels on Graphene Sheets for Catalytic Reduction of Nitroarenes

Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide-acrylic acid) [p(NIPAM-AAc)] microgel was successfully fabricated using the precipitation polymerization method. Silver (Ag) nanoparticles and graphene oxide (G) were used to fabricate the following hybrid microgels: Ag-p(NIPAM-AAc) (Ag-HMG), Ag-G-p(NIPAM-AAc) (Ag-G-HMG), and G-p(NIPAM-AAc) (G-HMG). Ag-HMG, Ag-G-HMG, and G-HMG were characterized using a Zetasizer and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The reduction of a series of different compounds with comparable and distinct chemical structures was catalyzed by synthesized Ag-HMG, Ag-G-HMG, and G-HMG hybrid microgels. The average size of Ag nanoparticles was found to be ~50 nm. Ag nanoparticles were synthesized within microgels attached to G sheets. Ag-p(NIPAM-AAc), Ag-G-p(NIPAM-AAc), and G-p(NIPAM-AAc) hybrid microgels were used for the catalytic reduction of nitroarenes and dyes. By comparing their apparent rate constant (kapp), reduction duration, and percentage reduction, the activity of HMG (hybrid microgel) as a catalyst towards different substrates was investigated. Graphene sheets play role in electron relay among Ag nanoparticles and microgels