Wheat and barley seed system in Syria: farmers' varietal perceptions, seed sources and seed management

A total of 206 wheat and 200 barley farmers were interviewed in northeastern Syria to understand farmer perceptions and practice relating to modern varieties, seed sources and seed quality. Wheat farmers had better awareness and grew modern varieties (87%), applied fertilizers (99.5%), herbicides (93%), seed treatment (90%) or insecticides (41%). In contrast barley growers had low awareness (36%) and use (0.5%) of modern varieties, herbicides (4%), insecticides (3%) and fertilizers (56%). Grain yield, grain size, food quality and tolerance to lodging, drought and frost were the agronomic characteristics farmers sought from new wheat varieties. For barley, grain yield, grain size, grain color, feed quality, marketability and tolerance to diseases and drought were the key traits sought. The informal sector-seed retained from the previous harvest or obtained from neighbors or local traders/markets-was the main source of seed for both wheat and barley. Most farmers practiced onfarm seed selection, cleaning, treatment, separate storage or quality assessment of seed that was obtained locally. Farmers’ perceptions and preferences of new varieties/technologies and their seed sources and seed management practices must be taken into account in any efforts to develop or to strengthen seed sector developmen

Farmers, seeds and varieties : supporting informal seed supply in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is characterized by an enormous diversity in agro-ecosystems, crops and varieties, with the informal seed systems dominant in seed supply for almost all crops. The book addresses strategies and approaches through which professionals can support informal seed supply, and links these with the conservation and use of the huge genetic resource base of crops and local varieties. The book looks at informal seed supply from a number of different angles, introduces key concepts and strategies, and presents case studies from Ethiopia and other countries. It deals with the technical aspects of, quality and availability of, and access to seed, and of supporting informal supply. It also deals with the role of farmers in the conservation and management of local crops and varieties, and the participation of farmers and communities in plant breeding and research. It takes a particular interest in the role of farmer organizations in seed supply, and how this role can be strengthened by developing community and small-scale seed enterprises. The aim of all the strategies, case studies and reflections on experiences presented in this book is to improve the availability of and access to quality seeds and varieties, thereby improving the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in Ethiopia and beyond

GIS-Based multi-criteria land suitability mapping for scaling faba bean varieties in Ethiopia.

Successful scaling of agricultural technology requires a spatial explicit framework for targeting the right variety at the right place. This entails a multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) approach, using a set of determining factors to delineate the scaling domains for faba bean ( Vicia faba L.) varieties in and identify potentially suitable land area in a specific region, and zone in Ethiopia. Meeting this challenge will require a solid spatial framework. Land suitability analysis is an evaluation and spatial decision making, involving several determining factors. The factors considered in this analysis include key biophysical parameters such as climate, topography, soil types and properties. The analysis was also focused on improved faba bean varieties viz., Dagm, Dosha, Gabelcho, Gora, Hachalu, Moti and Walki. The environmental factors\u2019 layers of a specific crop pixel values were classified and given a weight, and then compared among themselves for further ranking to account for their relative importance to delineate variety specific extrapolation domains. The geo-statistical analysis was carried out to estimate the extent of the scalable areas. The classification showed that, it was highly suitable for varieties 0.02 million hectares for Dosha; 0.19 for Gabelcho; 0.11 for Gora; 0.33 for Moti; 0.05 for Dagm; 0.14 for Hachalu; and 0.26 million hectares for Walki. Moderately suitable areas for these varieties covered 5.0, 9.4, 7.2, 15.3, 4.6, 8.8, and 7.5 million hectares, respectively across the country. The largest proportion for all varieties was moderately suitable; while the share of slightly suitable was very low, although there was quite variability within each of the faba bean variety in terms of its agro-ecology adaptation to the target environments. Such biophysical spatial frameworks become essential entry points for introducing variety specific product profiles and this can be further enhanced by incorporating socio-economic attributes accounting for return of the investment in targeting the technology.La mise \ue0 l\u2019\ue9chelle r\ue9ussie de la technologie agricole n\ue9cessite un cadre d\u2018 explicite spatial pour se concentrer sur la bonne vari\ue9t\ue9 au bon endroit. Cela implique une approche d\u2019\ue9valuation multicrit\ue8re (ECM), utilisant un ensemble de facteurs d\ue9terminants pour d\ue9limiter les domaines de mesurage pour les vari\ue9t\ue9s de f\ue9verole ( Vicia faba L.) et identifier les terres potentiellement appropri\ue9es dans une r\ue9gion et une zone sp\ue9cifiques en \uc9thiopie. Relever ce d\ue9fi exigera un cadre spatial certain. L\u2019analyse de l\u2019aptitude des terres est une \ue9valuation et une prise de d\ue9cision spatiale impliquant plusieurs facteurs d\ue9terminants. Les facteurs pris en compte dans cette analyse incluent des param\ue8tres biophysiques cl\ue9s tels que le climat, la topographie, les types de sol et leurs propri\ue9t\ue9s. L\u2019analyse a \ue9galement port\ue9 sur les vari\ue9t\ue9s am\ue9lior\ue9es de f\ue9verole, \ue0 savoir Dagm, Dosha, Gabelcho, Gora, Hachalu, Moti et Walki. Les couches de facteurs environnementaux d\u2019une valeur de pixel de plante sp\ue9cifique ont \ue9t\ue9 classifi\ue9es et pond\ue9r\ue9es, puis compar\ue9es entre elles pour un classement ult\ue9rieur tenant compte de leur importance relative dans la d\ue9limitation de domaines d\u2019extrapolation sp\ue9cifiques \ue0 une vari\ue9t\ue9. L\u2019analyse g\ue9o-statistique a \ue9t\ue9 r\ue9alis\ue9e pour estimer l\u2019\ue9tendue des zones \ue9volutives. La classification a montr\ue9 qu\u2019elle convenait parfaitement aux vari\ue9t\ue9s 0,02 million d\u2019hectares pour Dosha; 0,19 pour Gabelcho; 0,11 pour Gora; 0,33 pour Moti; 0,05 pour Dagm; 0,14 pour Hachalu; et 0,26 million d\u2019hectares pour Walki. Les zones moyennement adapt\ue9es \ue0 ces vari\ue9t\ue9s couvraient respectivement 5,0; 9,4; 7,2; 15,3; 4,6; 8,8 et 7,5 millions d\u2019hectares dans l\u2019ensemble du pays. La plus grande proportion de toutes les vari\ue9t\ue9s \ue9tait mod\ue9r\ue9ment appropri\ue9e; alors que la proportion de produits l\ue9g\ue8rement appropri\ue9s \ue9tait tr\ue8s faible, bien qu\u2019il y ait une assez grande variabilit\ue9 au sein de chaque vari\ue9t\ue9 de f\ue9verole en ce qui concerne son adaptation agro\ue9cologique aux environnements cibles. De tels cadres spatiaux biophysiques deviennent des points d\u2019entr\ue9e essentiels pour l\u2019introduction de profils de produits sp\ue9cifiques \ue0 une vari\ue9t\ue9, ce qui peut \ueatre encore am\ue9lior\ue9 en incorporant des attributs socio-\ue9conomiques permettant de rentabiliser l\u2019investissement dans la focalisation de la technologie

Genotype by environment interaction on yield stability of desi type chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) at major chickpea producing areas of Ethiopia

This study was conducted to determine the interaction between chickpea genotypes with the environment (GxE) on the yield stability and adaptability of desi type chickpea genotypes (Cicer arietinum L.). Seventeen chickpea genotypes were evaluated for two cropping years (2012/2013 – 2013/2014) at four locations i.e., eight environments (locations x years combination). Chickpea grain yield was significantly (p<0.01) affected by genotypes, the environments and GxE interaction, indicating that the varieties and the test environments were diverse. GxE was further partitioned by principal component axes. The first two principal components cumulatively explained 53.1% of the total variation, of which 32.7% and 20.4% were contributed by IPCA1 and IPCA2, respectively. This implies that the interaction of 17 chickpea genotypes with eight environments was predicted by the first two principal components. AMMI1 biplot analysis showed five adaptive categories of genotypes based on similarities in their performance across environments. The AMMI2 biplot generated using genotypes and environmental scores for the first two IPCAs revealed positioning of the five genotype groups (GC) into four sectors of the biplot. Among them, two genotypes in GC 5 (G5 and G11) exhibited high yields across environments, low IPCA1 scores, low AMMI stability value (ASV) and yield stability index (YSI). G5 was released as a new variety, ‘Dimtu’ and registered in the Official Varieties Catalogue of Ethiopia, 2016

A Decade of Research Progress in Chickpea and Lentil Breeding and Genetics

This paper summarizes achievements of chickpea and lentil breeding during the last decade /2005-2015/ in Ethiopia. Gentic yield gains from decadal breeding efforts were 80 kg/ha/year for chickpea and 52 kg/ha/yr for lentil. The germplasm enhancment and subsequent variety evaluation verification programs during the decade resulted in releases of 17 chickpea and 2 lentil varieties. These advanced varieties, when applied in production system with proper crop managment and protection practices, almost doubled productivity per unit area at farm level

Genetic Diversity and Ecological Niche Modelling of Wild Barley:Refugia, Large-Scale Post-LGM Range Expansion and Limited Mid-Future Climate Threats?

Describing genetic diversity in wild barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum) in geographic and environmental space in the context of current, past and potential future climates is important for conservation and for breeding the domesticated crop (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare). Spatial genetic diversity in wild barley was revealed by both nuclear- (2,505 SNP, 24 nSSR) and chloroplast-derived (5 cpSSR) markers in 256 widely-sampled geo-referenced accessions. Results were compared with MaxEnt-modelled geographic distributions under current, past (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM) and mid-term future (anthropogenic scenario A2, the 2080s) climates. Comparisons suggest large-scale post-LGM range expansion in Central Asia and relatively small, but statistically significant, reductions in range-wide genetic diversity under future climate. Our analyses support the utility of ecological niche modelling for locating genetic diversity hotspots and determine priority geographic areas for wild barley conservation under anthropogenic climate change. Similar research on other cereal crop progenitors could play an important role in tailoring conservation and crop improvement strategies to support future human food security

Wheat and barley seed systems in Ethiopia and Syria

Keywords: Wheat,Triticumspp., Barley,Hordeumvulgare L., Seed Systems, Formal Seed Sector, Informal Seed Sector, National Seed Program, Seed Source, Seed Selection, Seed Management, Seed Quality, Genetic Diversity, Ethiopia, SyriaInEthiopiaandSyria, wheat and barley are the two most important principal cereal crops grown since ancient times.Manygenerations of natural and human selection led into highly adapted and diverse populations of local landraces. For most of the history of agriculture, plant improvement and seed selection were farmer-based activities carried out as an integral part of crop production. Withthe development of commercial agriculture, plant breeding and seed production evolved into different disciplines.Thewheat and barley seedsystemswere studied in Ethiopia and Syria to obtain an insight into the functioning of formal and informal seed systems with emphasis on understanding: the flow of information on new agricultural technologies;farmers' perception, criteria and adoption of modern varieties; farmers' seed sources and indigenous knowledge in seed management practices; quality of seed planted by farmers and its constraints;and on-farm wheat and barley diversity.Farmers use multiple sources of information such as the formal (extension services, development agencies, research institutions, media broadcast) or the informal (own experience, relatives, neighbors, other farmers, local traders) sources to acquire knowledge on varieties and/or agronomic packages for crop production. Most wheat growers (over 90%) are aware of and have information on modern varieties, agrochemical inputs (fertilizers, herbicides, etc.) and agronomic packages.In Ethiopia, the formal extension service was the main source of information for new technologies generated by research through its recently introduced agricultural package program, comparatively more so than in Syria where fellow farmers (relatives, neighbors and other farmers) accounted as the major source of information. Neighbors and other farmers were the second most important informal sources of information particularly for modern varieties partly due to the lateralvarietaldiffusion through traditional seed exchanges.Farmers grow three broad categories of wheat varieties, i.e. recommended, 'obsolete' or landraces. An extensive use of modern wheat varieties and production packages was found among wheat growers in both countries. InEthiopia, the majority of farmers grew modern bread wheat varieties (76% recommended and 10% obsolete varieties), and applied fertilizers (96.7%) and herbicides (63.5%) to their wheat crop. Similarly, wheat farmers inSyriaused modern varieties on the recommended list (97%), fertilizers (99.5%), herbicides (92.7%), storage pesticides (40.8%), and seed treatment chemicals (90.3%). However, the use of modern varieties and associated technologies was negligible for barley growers inSyriaexcept for the use of fertilizers (56%). Although seven modern barley varieties were released none of them were widely adopted because of farmers' preferences or lack ofvarietaladaptability. The entire barley area (99%) was planted with a local landraceArabiAswadin northeasternSyria. Developing crop varieties with high yield and yield stability foragroecologicallydiverse durum wheat growing environments inEthiopiaor agro-climatically variable marginal environments typical to barley production areas in northeasternSyriastill remains a challenging task.About 26 technological and socio-economic criteria were identified by farmers for adopting new modern wheat and barley varieties or for evaluating those currently grown on their farm. Grain yield, grain color, grain size, marketability and food quality (feed quality for barley), appeared most important in both crops and transcended all regions. Ethiopian farmers also consider tolerance to pests very important given their awareness of the susceptibility of the existing wheat varieties to major rust diseases. In Syria, non-lodging, frost tolerance or drought tolerance are additional agronomic characteristics farmers seeking from new wheat varieties. Some wheat local landraces were highly preferred by farmers because of their unique adaptation to diverseagroecologicalzones, stable yield, grain quality, marketability and for traditional food preparation. Most farmers in Syria had positive perceptions of the barley local landrace where one third saw no disadvantage in growing it.Farmers' seed acquisition from external sources is dynamic reflecting their response to specifictechnical and socio-economic factorsassociated with farming. Farmers used four main sources of seed for planting: (a) own saved seed from the previous years' harvest; (b) seed obtained from relatives, neighbors or other farmers; (c) seed purchased through local markets or grain traders; and (d) seed purchased from the formal sector. The informal farmer-to-farmer seed exchange is the major initial source of wheat and barley varieties as well as for seed used for planting each year. InEthiopia, the informal sector accounted as an initial source of modern varieties for 58% of the wheat farmers and as a source of seed for planting for 92% of farmers in 1997/98 crop season.InSyriathe formal sector was the main initial seed source of modern wheat varieties where it accounted for nearly 60%, but provided wheat seed for only 24% among sample farmers in 1998/99 crop season.Almost all barley farmers (87%) as expected initially sourced their current seed stock from informal sources (relatives, other farmers, neighbors or local markets).Farmers had a positive perception of seed both from formal and informal sources and were generally satisfied with the quality of seed obtained from different sources. Farmers purchase seed from the formal sector because of likely perception of high physical purity, chemical treatment, or as a strategy to acquire new varieties. Moreover, most farmers were also satisfied with the quality of own saved seed or that obtained from other informal sources due to its timely availability, less or no transaction costs or lack of credit facilities, adaptable varieties and certified seed.Farmers' perception of seed influenced them topractisedifferent on-farm seed management approaches to maintain the quality of their wheat and barley seed through selection (46-67%), cleaning (83-90%), treatment (4-90%), separate storage (64-76%) or informal assessment of physiological quality (3-34%). Almost all wheat and barley growers recognized the difference between grain and seed and attributed these to physical purity, absence of weeds, big kernel size,goodgermination, free of insect damage. The responsibility for on-farm seed management was shared between men and women, who had a distinctive role to play.In Ethiopia, the mean physical purity and germination of wheat seed was 98.92 and 96%, respectively and the majority of samples reached the minimum purity and germination standards. In Syria, mean physical purity and germination for wheat was 97.59% and 86%, respectively whereas for barley the average analytical purity was 95.47% and germination was 86%. However, the quality of wheat seed samples was higher than that of barley seed samples where most of the samples (90 and 28% for purity and germination, respectively) failed to meet the minimum official seed standards. Highly significant differences in seed quality were observed for seed samples collected from different regions and districts for wheat and barley crops in both countries. However, there was limited significant difference in physiological quality of seed samples obtained from different sources, but not in physical quality.Several seed-borne fungi such asDrechslerasativum,Septorianodorum andFusariumgraminearum, F. poae, F. avenaceum, and F. nivale including storage fungi were recorded across samples from different wheat growing region ofEthiopia. Among fungal pathogens isolated from wheat seed, 83.6% of samples were infected with D.sativum (average infection rate of 1.85%) and 74% of the samples withFusariumgraminearum (average infection rate of 1.54%). Infection with loose smut (Ustilagotritici) , common bunt (Tilletiaspp.) and seed gall nematode (Anguinatritici ) was low where only 11.2, 2.3 and 8.6% of the samples were infected, respectively. InSyria, 68 and 14% of wheat seed samples were infected with common bunt and loose smut, respectively. The average loose smut infection was 0.8%. The majority of barley seed samples were also infected with covered smut (Ustilagohordei =85%) and loose smut (83%) in varying proportion. The average loose smut infection for barley was 18%. Seed health quality of wheat was better than of barley in terms of the frequency (number of samples) and intensity of infection (% infection).On-farmvarietaldiversity in terms of the number of varieties/landraces grown and area coverage were quite low both for wheat and barley. Farm level surveys showed low spatial diversity where few dominant wheat varieties occupy a large proportion of area. These few wheat varieties were also grown by the majority of farmers threatening the diversity of local landraces. InEthiopia, the five top wheat varieties were grown by 56% of the sample farmers and these varieties were planted on 80% of the total wheat area whereas forSyriait was 78 and 81%, respectively in the same order. In case of barley one single local landrace was grown in the entire survey area. The weighted average age of wheat varietieswas13.8 years for bread wheat inEthiopiaand 10.8 years for wheat inSyriashowing lowvarietalreplacement by farmers, an indicator of low temporal diversity. The coefficient of parentage analysis showed that the average and weighted diversity for bread wheat was 0.76 and 0.66, respectively inEthiopiaand for bread wheat (0.73/0.42) and durum wheat (0.85/0.73) inSyria. The field experiments showed significant variations for desirable agronomic and phenotypic traits diversity such as plant height, grain yield, and yield components (spike length,spikeletsspike -1 , kernels per spike -1 , seed weight) among wheat and barley varieties and/or local landraces. This study combined farmer surveys, laboratory analysis and field experiments to better understand farmer's perception and adoption of modern varieties (and associated technologies) and to investigate on-farm genetic diversity and seed quality suggesting alternative ways for improving and strengthening the national seed system. Moreover, the study used extensive secondary data to draw a synthesis on the future direction of the national seed sector in developing countries in general and of the Ethiopian and Syrian seed industry in particular.</span