Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on Conyza canadensis drought responses and possible mechanisms

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important plant mutualists that can facilitate plant responses to various environmental stressors, such as drought. A plant that may benefit from AMF-induced drought tolerance is Conyza canadensis due to its ability to thrive in dry conditions and its high colonization rate. However, no studies have researched C. canadensis in this context and the exact mechanisms of AMF-induced drought tolerance are still unknown. To better understand if and how AMF facilitate drought response in C. canadensis, we conducted a greenhouse experiment comparing the response of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants to three watering levels. We measured dry biomass, water content, leaf water potential, photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance, and shoot N and P concentrations. AMF improved plant performance under drought, and the magnitude of that improvement was modulated by the severity of drought imposed. We showed that AMF upregulate stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and increase P uptake. In conclusion, we find that AMF protect Conyza from the most severe drought stress, and that this response is likely mediated by increased stomatal control and nutrient uptake. Colonization led to biomass reductions, which suggests AMF benefit C. canadensis more in the way of drought tolerance and nutrient uptake, rather than improving growth

Effects of Short- and Long-Term Variation in Resource Conditions on Soil Fungal Communities and Plant Responses to Soil Biota

Soil biota can strongly influence plant performance with effects ranging from negative to positive. However, shifts in resource availability can influence plant responses, with soil pathogens having stronger negative effects in high-resource environments and soil mutualists, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), having stronger positive effects in low-resource environments. Yet the relative importance of long-term vs. short-term variation in resources on soil biota and plant responses is not well-known. To assess this, we grew the perennial herb Asclepias speciosa in a greenhouse experiment that crossed a watering treatment (wet vs. dry treatment) with a manipulation of soil biota (live vs. sterilized soil) collected from two geographic regions (Washington and Minnesota) that vary greatly in annual precipitation. Because soil biota can influence many plant functional traits, we measured biomass as well as resource acquisition (e.g., root:shoot, specific leaf area) and defense (e.g., trichome and latex production) traits. Due to their important role as mutualists and pathogens, we also characterized soil fungal communities in the field and greenhouse and used curated databases to assess fungal composition and potential function. We found that the experimental watering treatment had a greater effect than soil biota origin on plant responses; most plant traits were negatively affected by live soils under wet conditions, whereas responses were neutral or positive in live dry soil. These consistent differences in plant responses occurred despite clear differences in soil fungal community composition between inoculate origin and watering treatments, which indicates high functional redundancy among soil fungi. All plants grown in live soil were highly colonized by AMF and root colonization was higher in wet than dry soil; root colonization by other fungi was low in all treatments. The most parsimonious explanation for negative plant responses in wet soil is that AMF became parasitic under conditions that alleviated resource limitation. Thus, plant responses appeared driven by shifts within rather than between fungal guilds, which highlights the importance of coupling growth responses with characterizations of soil biota to fully understand underlying mechanisms. Collectively these results highlight how short-term changes in environmental conditions can mediate complex interactions between plants and soil biota

Molecular Community Analysis of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Roots of Geothermal Soils in Yellowstone National Park (USA)

To better understand adaptation of plants and their mycorrhizae to extreme environmental conditions, we analyzed the composition of communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in roots from geothermal sites in Yellowstone National Park (YNP), USA. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were identified using molecular methods including seven specific primer pairs for regions of the ribosomal DNA that amplify different subgroups of AMF. Roots of Dichanthelium lanuginosum, a grass only occurring in geothermal areas, were sampled along with thermal and nonthermal Agrostis scabra and control plants growing outside the thermally influenced sites. In addition, root samples of Agrostis stolonifera from geothermal areas of Iceland were analyzed to identify possible common mycosymbionts between these geographically isolated locations. In YNP, 16 ribosomal DNA phylotypes belonging to the genera Archaeospora, Glomus, Paraglomus, Scutellospora, and Acaulospora were detected. Eight of these phylotypes could be assigned to known morphospecies, two others have been reported previously in molecular studies from different environments, and six were new to science. The most diverse and abundant lineage was Glomus group A, with the most frequent phylotype corresponding to Glomus intraradices. Five of the seven phylotypes detected in a preliminary sampling in a geothermal area in Iceland were also found in YNP. Nonthermal vegetation was dominated by a high diversity of Glomus group A phylotypes while nonthermal plants were not. Using multivariate analyses, a subset of three phylotypes were determined to be associated with geothermal conditions in the field sites analyzed. In conclusion, AMF communities in geothermal soils are distinct in their composition, including both unique phylotypes and generalist fungi that occur across a broad range of environmental condition

The fluctuating resource hypothesis explains invasibility, but not exotic advantage following disturbance

Invasibility is a key indicator of community susceptibility to changes in structure and function. The fluctuating resource hypothesis (FRH) postulates that invasibility is an emergent community property, a manifestation of multiple processes that cannot be reliably predicted by individual community attributes like diversity or productivity. Yet, research has emphasized the role of these individual attributes, with the expectation that diversity should deter invasibility and productivity enhance it. In an effort to explore how these and other factors may influence invasibility, we evaluated the relationship between invasibility and species richness, productivity, resource availability, and resilience in experiments crossing disturbance with exotic seed addition in 1-m2 plots replicated over large expanses of grasslands in Montana, USA and La Pampa, Argentina. Disturbance increased invasibility as predicted by FRH, but grasslands were more invasible in Montana than La Pampa whether disturbed or not, despite Montana´s higher species richness and lower productivity. Moreover, invasibility correlated positively with nitrogen availability and negatively with native plant cover. These patterns suggested that resource availability and the ability of the community to recover from disturbance (resilience) better predicted invasibility than either species richness or productivity, consistent with predictions from FRH. However, in ambient, unseeded plots in Montana, disturbance reduced native cover by >50% while increasing exotic cover >200%. This provenance bias could not be explained by FRH, which predicts that colonization processes act on species? traits independent of origins. The high invasibility of Montana grasslands following disturbance was associated with a strong shift from perennial to annual species, as predicted by succession theory. However, this shift was driven primarily by exotic annuals, which were more strongly represented than perennials in local exotic vs. native species pools. We attribute this provenance bias to extrinsic biogeographic factors such as disparate evolutionary histories and/or introduction filters selecting for traits that favor exotics following disturbance. Our results suggest that (1) invasibility is an emergent property best explained by a community´s efficiency in utilizing resources, as predicted by FRH but (2) understanding provenance biases in biological invasions requires moving beyond FRH to incorporate extrinsic biogeographic factors that may favor exotics in community assembly.Fil: Pearson, Dean. United State Forest Service; Estados Unidos. University of Montana; Estados UnidosFil: Ortega, Yvette K.. United State Forest Service; Estados UnidosFil: Villarreal, Diego. Universidad Nacional de La Pampa. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; ArgentinaFil: Lekberg, Ylva. University of Montana; Estados UnidosFil: Cock, Marina Cecilia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Ambientales de La Pampa. Universidad Nacional de La Pampa. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Ambientales de La Pampa; ArgentinaFil: Eren, Ozkan. Adnan Menderes Universitesi; TurquíaFil: Hierro, Jose Luis. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Ambientales de La Pampa. Universidad Nacional de La Pampa. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Ambientales de La Pampa; Argentin

Grassland invaders and their mycorrhizal symbionts:a study across climate and invasion gradients

Controlled experiments show that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can increase competitiveness of exotic plants, potentially increasing invasion success. We surveyed AMF abundance and community composition in Centaurea stoebe and Potentilla recta invasions in the western USA to assess whether patterns were consistent with mycorrhizal-mediated invasions. We asked whether (1) AMF abundance and community composition differ between native and exotic forbs, (2) associations between native plants and AMF shift with invading exotic plants, and (3) AMF abundance and/or community composition differ in areas where exotic plants are highly invasive and in areas where they are not. We collected soil and roots from invaded and native forb communities along invasion gradients and in regions with different invasion densities. We used AMF root colonization as a measure of AMF abundance and characterized AMF communities in roots using 454-sequencing of the LSU-rDNA region. All plants were highly colonized (>60%), but exotic forbs tended to be more colonized than natives (P < 0.001). We identified 30 AMF operational taxonomic units (OTUs) across sites, and community composition was best predicted by abiotic factors (soil texture, pH). Two OTUs in the genera Glomus and Rhizophagus dominated in most communities, and their dominance increased with invasion density (r = 0.57, P = 0.010), while overall OTU richness decreased with invasion density (r = −0.61, P = 0.006). Samples along P. recta invasion gradients revealed small and reciprocal shifts in AMF communities with >45% fungal OTUs shared between neighboring native and P. recta plants. Overall, we observed significant, but modest, differences in AMF colonization and communities between co-occurring exotic and native forbs and among exotic forbs across regions that differ in invasion pressure. While experimental manipulations are required to assess functional consequences, the observed patterns are not consistent with those expected from strong mycorrhizal-mediated invasions

Dynamics of mycorrhizae during development of riparian forests along an unregulated river

In this study, we explore two mycorrhizal groups during development of riparian soils along a freely‐flowing river. We provide the first documentation of a shift in abundance between arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae during floodplain succession. We used a chronosequence spanning 0–70 yr along a river in northwestern Montana, USA, to test the hypothesis that abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is greatest in early stages of soil development, and abundance of ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECMF) is greatest later in floodplain succession. We also measured the AMF‐mediated process of formation of soil aggregates during site development. AMF colonization of the dominant tree (black cottonwood, Populus trichocarpa) remained low (<5%), while AMF colonization of understory species was high (45–90%), across the chronosequence. Mycorrhizal inoculum potential (MIP) and hyphal length of AMF in soil peaked within the first 13 yr of succession and then declined. No single variable significantly correlated with AMF abundance, but AMF tended to decline as litter and soil organic matter increased. Density of ectomycorrhizal root tips in soil increased linearly throughout the chronosequence, and ectomycorrhizal colonization of cottonwood roots increased rapidly in early stages of succession. These patterns suggest that ECMF are not limited by dispersal, but rather influenced by abundance of host plants. Formation of water stable aggregates increased rapidly during the first third of the chronosequence, which was the period of greatest AMF abundance in the soil. The peak in AMF infectivity and hyphal length during early succession suggests that regular flooding and establishment of new sites promotes AMF abundance in this ecosystem. Regulation of rivers that eliminates creation of new sites may reduce contributions of AMF to riparian areas

Invasive plants rapidly reshape soil properties in a grassland ecosystem

© The Author(s), 2017. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in mSystems 2 (2017): e00178-16, doi:10.1128/mSystems.00178-16.Plant invasions often reduce native plant diversity and increase net primary productivity. Invaded soils appear to differ from surrounding soils in ways that impede restoration of diverse native plant communities. We hypothesize that invader-mediated shifts in edaphic properties reproducibly alter soil microbial community structure and function. Here, we take a holistic approach, characterizing plant, prokaryotic, and fungal communities and soil physicochemical properties in field sites, invasion gradients, and experimental plots for three invasive plant species that cooccur in the Rocky Mountain West. Each invader had a unique impact on soil physicochemical properties. We found that invasions drove shifts in the abundances of specific microbial taxa, while overall belowground community structure and functional potential were fairly constant. Forb invaders were generally enriched in copiotrophic bacteria with higher 16S rRNA gene copy numbers and showed greater microbial carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolic potential. Older invasions had stronger effects on abiotic soil properties, indicative of multiyear successions. Overall, we show that plant invasions are idiosyncratic in their impact on soils and are directly responsible for driving reproducible shifts in the soil environment over multiyear time scales.Sean Gibbons was supported by an EPA STAR Graduate Fellowship and National Institutes of Health training grant 5T-32EB-009412. Other funding for this project was provided by MPG Ranch and DOE contract DE-AC02-06CH11357