Intellectual property rights, licensing, and innovation

There is considerable debate in economics literature on whether a decision by developing countries to strengthen their protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) will increase or reduce their access to modern technologies invented by industrial countries. This access can be achieved through technology transfer of various kinds, including foreign direct investment and licensing. Licensing is the focus of this paper.To the extent that inventing firms choose to act more monopolistically and offer fewer technologies on the market, stronger IPRs could reduce international technology flows. However, to the extent that IPRs raise the returns to innovation and licensing, these flows would expand. In theory, the outcome depends on how IPRs affect several variables-the costs of, and returns to, international licensing; the wage advantage of workers in poor countries; the innovation process in industrial countries; and the amount of labor available for innovation and production. The authors develop a theoretical model in which firms in the North (industrial countries) innovate products of higher quality levels and decide whether to produce in the North or transfer production rights to the South (developing countries) through licensing. Different quality levels of each product are sold in equilibrium because of differences in consumers'willingness-to-pay for quality improvements. Contracting problems exist because the inventors in the North must indicate to licensees in the South whether their product is of higher or lower quality and also prevent the licensees from copying the technology. So, constraints in the model ensure that the equilibrium flow of licensing higher-quality goods meets these objectives. When the South strengthens its patent rights, copying by licensees is made costlier but the returns to licensing are increased. This change affects the dynamic decisions regarding innovation and technology transfer, which could rise or fall depending on market parameters, including the labor available for research and production. Results from the model show that the net effects depend on the balance between profits made by the Northern licensor and lower labor costs in the South. If the size of the labor force used in Northern innovation compared with that used in producing goods in both the North and South is sufficiently small (a condition that accords with reality), stronger IPRs in the South would lead to more licensing and innovation. This change would also increase the Southern wage relative to the Northern wage. So, in this model a decision by developing countries to increase their patent rights would expand global innovation and increase technology transfer. This result is consistent with recent empirical evidence. It should be noted that while the results suggest that international agreements to strengthen IPRs should expand global innovation and technology transfer through licensing, the model cannot be used for welfare analysis. Thus, while the developing countries enjoy more inward licensing, the cost per license could be higher, and prices could also rise, with an unclear overall effect on economic well-being.Agricultural Research,Environmental Economics&Policies,Knowledge Economy,Labor Policies,Economic Theory&Research,Environmental Economics&Policies,Economic Theory&Research,Education for the Knowledge Economy,Knowledge Economy,Agricultural Research

Comprehensive identification of ecologically important areas in Zhengzhou, China

Ecosystem services include the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being and survival, which are important factors that maintain and influence the ecological environment of humans, animals, and plants. Identification of ecological source areas is the first step for mapping high-quality ecological networks, ensuring urban ecological security, and improving the ecosystem service functions. Zhengzhou City is located in the central region of China, and is the core transportation hub of the country. In recent decades, Zhengzhou has accumulated a series of ecological problems in the dramatic urbanization development, such as the destruction of natural resources, environmental pollution, and biological species reduction. Ecological conservation is an urgent need for Zhengzhou. Based on the ecosystem services theory, we selected biodiversity maintenance function, habitat quality, water conservation, and soil conservation as key ecological impact factors to comprehensively evaluate the ecosystem service functions of the study area. By using GIS spatial analysis tool, the InVEST habitat quality model, and spatial connectivity analysis, we can implement the integrated identification of ecological source areas on a large scale. After superimposing the evaluation of ecological factors, the results show that the most important source areas are primarily distributed in the southwest of Zhengzhou. The proportion of ecological sources in Zhengzhou is relatively small, with an area of about 711.16km2, accounting for only 9.3% of Zhengzhou. Most of them have already been protected as forest parks or nature reserve by the government, while some sources like sections of Yellow River which are close to main urban area are facing development pressure. The ecological corridors in the urban area mostly are based on water system like Jinshui river, Xiliu Lake, and Longzi Lake that can connect green open space in the main urban area and natural green space outside

City in the park,” Greenway Network Concept of High-Density Cities: Adaptation of Singapore Park Connector Network in Chinese Cities

This paper uses the “Park Connector Network” (PCN) as a model, to analyze Singapore’s experience and to cope with the dramatic increase in population and urbanization, and then to apply this experience to Chinese high-density cities. The research goal is to provide guidance for the adaptation of “City in the Park” in China and the construction of high-density urban green space systems. The concept of “City in the Park” that was born in 2018 in China can be related directly to the “Park Connector Network” model

Glycemic variability evaluated by HbA1c rather than fasting plasma glucose is associated with adverse cardiovascular events

BackgroundAlthough studies have shown that glycemic variability is positively associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, few studies have compared hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and fasting plasma glucose (FPG) variability with adverse cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).MethodsThis was a post hoc analysis of the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) study. Cox proportional hazards models were used to explore the relationship between HbA1c or FPG variability and the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs).ResultsIn total, 9,547 patients with T2DM were enrolled in this study. During the median 4.6 ± 1.5 years follow-up period, 907 patients developed MACEs. The risk of MACEs increased in the HbA1c variability group in each higher quartile of HbA1c variability (P < 0.01). Compared with those in the first quartile of HbA1c variability, patients in the fourth quartile had a hazard ratio of 1.37 (Model 2, 95% confidence interval: 1.13–1.67) for MACEs. Higher FPG variability was not associated with a higher risk of MACEs in patients with T2DM (P for trend=0.28). A U-shaped relationship was observed between HbA1c and FPG variability, and MACEs. Glucose control therapy modified the relationship between HbA1c and MACEs; participants with higher HbA1c variability receiving intensive glucose control were more likely to develop MACEs (P for interaction <0.01).ConclusionIn adults with T2DM, the relationship between glycemic variability evaluated using HbA1c and FPG was U-shaped, and an increase in HbA1c variability rather than FPG variability was significantly associated with MACEs. The relationship between HbA1c variability and MACEs was affected by the glucose control strategy, and a higher HbA1c variability was more strongly associated with MACEs in patients receiving an intensive glucose control strategy

On the growth of national geoparks in China: distribution, interpretation, and regional comparison

Since the year 2000 China has created 139 National Geoparks; it started under the guidance of the former UNESCO\u27s Division of Earth Science, and has therefore become one of the pioneers in this aspect. Many National Geoparks in China have been described over the past decade, but an understanding of the range of various landform features and their connection with geological and climatic constraints has not previously been published. Based on an increasing awareness of National Geoparks, the aim of this contribution is to provide a comprehensive overview of the National Geoparks of China by reviewing the geological heritage and their intrinsic linkages with geological and climatic controls. A regional comparison of the widespread clastic and karst Geopark landforms indicates that the development of these terrains can only be understood within a synthesis of tectonic constraints, climatic changes and lithological properties, whereas the variety of types, forms, scales and development patterns reflect processes in various climatic settings

Climatic and Soil Factors Shape the Demographical History and Genetic Diversity of a Deciduous Oak (Quercus liaotungensis) in Northern China

Past and current climatic changes have affected the demography, patterns of genetic diversity, and genetic structure of extant species. The study of these processes provides valuable information to forecast evolutionary changes and to identify conservation priorities. Here, we sequenced two functional nuclear genes and four chloroplast DNA regions for 105 samples from 21 populations of Quercus liaotungensis across its distribution range. Coalescent-based Bayesian analysis, approximate Bayesian computation (ABC), and ecological niche modeling (ENM) were integrated to investigate the genetic patterns and demographical history of this species. Association estimates including Mantel tests and multiple linear regressions were used to infer the effects of geographical and ecological factors on temporal genetic variation and diversity of this oak species. Based on multiple loci, Q. liaotungensis populations clustered into two phylogenetic groups; this grouping pattern could be the result of adaptation to habitats with different temperature and precipitation seasonality conditions. Demographical reconstructions and ENMs suggest an expansion decline trend of this species during the Quaternary climatic oscillations. Association analyses based on nuclear data indicated that intraspecific genetic differentiation of Q. liaotungensis was clearly correlated with ecological distance; specifically, the genetic diversity of this species was significantly correlated with temperature seasonality and soil pH, but negatively correlated with precipitation. Our study highlights the impact of Pleistocene climate oscillations on the demographic history of a tree species in Northern China, and suggests that climatic and soil conditions are the major factors shaping the genetic diversity and population structure of Q. liaotungensis

Differences in Albizia odoratissima genetic diversity between Hainan Island and mainland populations in China

BackgroundThis study aimed at exploring unique population genetic characteristics of Albizia odoratissima (Linn. f) Benth on Hainan Island to provide a scientific basis for its rational utilization and protection.MethodsIt analyzed the genetic diversity and structure of 280 individuals from 10 subpopulations of A. odoratissima from Hainan Island and Baise City using 16 expression sequence markers - simple sequence repeat markers.ResultsThe genetic diversity of Hainan population (I = 0.7290, He = 0.4483) was lower than that of the Baise population (I = 0.8722, He = 0.5121). Compared with the Baise population (Nm = 2.0709, FST = 0.1077), the Hainan Island population (Nm = 1.7519, FST = 0.1249) exhibited lower gene flow and higher degree of genetic differentiation. Molecular variance and genetic differentiation analyses showed that the main variation originated from individuals within the subpopulation. There were significant differences in the genetic structure between Hainan and Baise populations. It grouped according to geographical distance, consistent with the Mantel test results (R2 = 0.77, p = 0.001). In conclusion, the genetic diversity of the island A. odoratissima population was lower than that distributed on land, the two populations exhibited obvious genetic structure differences. Both the degrees of inbreeding and genetic differentiation were higher in the island population than in the land population

Intraperitoneal ropivacaine and early postoperative pain and postsurgical outcomes after laparoscoipc herniorrhaphy in toddlers: a randomized clinical trial

Background Postoperative pain can cause physiological distress, postoperative complications, and extended lengths of hospitalized stay. In children, management of postoperative pain is still recognized as being inadequate. Objective The aim of this trial was to investigate the effects of intraperitoneal ropivacaine on postoperative pain, and recovery of bowel function and emetic events after laparoscopic herniorrhaphy in toddlers. Methods Seventy-six children aged from 9 months to 3 years were recruited between August 2013 and June 2014 at Tongji Hospital and randomly assigned into two groups. One group received intraperitoneal ropivacaine right before surgery and the control group received intraperitoneal saline. A standard combined general anesthesia procedure was performed under regular monitoring. Postoperative pain was assessed by the FLACC scale. Postoperative analgesic consumption, time to flatus, time to first stool, and postoperative emetic events were also recorded. Results When compared with the control group, children who received intraperitoneal ropivacaine experienced less pain 0–4 h after surgery [P < 0.001, difference in median FLACC (95% CI) for 2 h time point is 2.00 (0.87–3.13), for 4 h time point is 1.00 (0.55–1.45)]. In addition, the number of toddlers who received analgesia 0–24 h after surgery in the ropivacaine group was lower than that in the control group [P < 0.001, difference in proportions (95% CI) is 0.575 (0.3865–0.7638)]. Compared with the control group, time to flatus in ropivacaine group was also much shorter [21.1 h vs 16.7 h, P = 0.04, difference in mean (95% CI) is 4.4 (1.49–7.28)], and the time to first stool after surgery was earlier in the ropivacaine group [30.7 h vs 25.6 h, P = 0.003, difference in mean (95% CI) is 5.1 (1.78–8.45)]. Furthermore, the incidence of emetic events in the ropivacaine group was significantly lower than the control group [32.4% vs 11.1%, P = 0.03, difference in proportions (95% CI) is 0.212 (0.0246–0.4002)]. Conclusion The present results indicate that intraperitoneal ropivacaine reduces early postoperative pain and improves recovery after laparoscopic herniorrhaphy in toddlers. Therefore, IPLA is a good stratagem for postoperative pain management after laparoscopic surgery in toddlers

The seeds of ecological recovery in urbanization-Spatiotemporal evolution of ecological resiliency of Dianchi Lake Basin, China

As a result of years of monitoring the ecological resiliency of natural areas and cities, it has become clear that it is both important and often feasible to implement ecological and environmental restoration in conjunction with ongoing processes of landscape change development and urbanization. Ecological resiliency and spatiotemporal evolution studies can objectively reveal the resiliency of ecosystems to external disturbances. Ecological monitoring and assessment can also help planners understand regional ecological spatial differentiation patterns and provided data support for planning. In this paper we have analyzes quantitatively the interrelationships of ecological factors in Dianchi Lake Basin (DLB) over the past 30 years and explored the spatial and temporal dynamics of ecological resiliency. Based on remote sensing images and primary data in 1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018, and 2022, we used the center of gravity migration and kernel density analysis to explore the spatial and temporal changes of ecological resiliency. We built the overall resiliency evaluation system using entropy weight in the TOPSIS model, and finally simulate the future changes based on CA-Markov (CA-MC) model. The results show that from 1995 to 2022, the ecological resiliency of land use and vegetation cover in DLB decreased substantially. An important finding was that the ecological resiliency of riparian buffer zone and landscape pattern were generally increasing. The distribution of barycenter movement and kernel density of different levels of ecological resiliency differed significantly and showed fluctuating changes. The extreme low resiliency and extremely resilient areas shift to the northeast, the mildly resilient areas shift to the northwest, and the highly resilient areas shift to the southeast. The overall resiliency level of DLB is predicted to slowly increase from 2022 to 2030 by deduction of the CA-MC model. Our analysis suggests that the study of the evolution of regional ecological resiliency can provide a timely understanding of regional ecological evolution patterns and propose ecological protection strategies