Outdoor airborne allergens: Characterization, behavior and monitoring in Europe

Aeroallergens or inhalant allergens, are proteins dispersed through the air and have the potential to induce allergic conditions such as rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma. Outdoor aeroallergens are found predominantly in pollen grains and fungal spores, which are allergen carriers. Aeroallergens from pollen and fungi have seasonal emission patterns that correlate with plant pollination and fungal sporulation and are strongly associated with atmospheric weather conditions. They are released when allergen carriers come in contact with the respiratory system, e.g. the nasal mucosa. In addition, due to the rupture of allergen carriers, airborne allergen molecules may be released directly into the air in the form of micronic and submicronic particles (cytoplasmic debris, cell wall fragments, droplets etc.) or adhered onto other airborne particulate matter. Therefore, aeroallergen detection strategies must consider, in addition to the allergen carriers, the allergen molecules themselves. This review article aims to present the current knowledge on inhalant allergens in the outdoor environment, their structure, localization, and factors affecting their production, transformation, release or degradation. In addition, methods for collecting and quantifying aeroallergens are listed and thoroughly discussed. Finally, the knowledge gaps, challenges and implications associated with aeroallergen analysis are describe

Frequency and specificity of red cell antibodies in thalassemia patients in Albania

Introduction Thalassemia major is a common hemoglobinopathy in Albania. However, there are no data available on the frequency of RBC alloimmunization and autoimmunization in transfusion-dependent Albanian patients with thalassemia. MethodsA total of 118 patients with thalassemia receiving regular transfusions were studied during 5years with antibody screening. During this period, they were exclusively transfused with blood matched for ABO, Rhesus and Kell system. These patients were previously exposed to unmatched blood because of blood shortages. ResultsFourteen of 118 (11, 8%) patients developed alloantibodies. Twelve (10, 1%) were already present at the start of the study. Only 2 (1, 7%) were formed after the application of a strict Rh and Kell matching policy. The most common antibody was anti-K, followed by anti-D, anti-C, anti-E, anti-c, anti-e, anti-Jk(b), and anti-C-w. Three patients developed anti-D plus anti-C. Anti-K was combined with Rh antibodies in two of five cases. Anti-c was combined with anti-E in two of three cases. The majority of antibodies (10/14) belonged to the Rh blood group system. With the exception of the anti-Jk(b) and the anti-C-w, all antibodies were already present at the beginning of the follow-up period. During our follow-up, 27 patients (22.8%) developed autoantibodies. A strong coincidence was found between the presence of alloantibodies and autoantibodies. Eleven of 14 (78%) of the patients with alloantibodies had also autoantibodies, whereas autoantibodies were found in 16 of 104 (15%) of patients with thalassemia without autoantibodies. The rate of alloantibody formation dropped from 10.1% to 1.7% after application of a strict Rh and Kell matching policy. ConclusionA policy of Rhesus and Kell matching without occasional exceptions greatly reduced the development of new alloantibodies and autoantibodies. Self-sufficiency through regular blood donation is necessary for the full implementation of an extended match policy and the prevention of antibody formation in our patients