A cross-cultural study into peer evaluations of women\u27s leadership effectiveness

Purpose: The present paper is based on a cross-cultural exploration of middle managers in two diverse cultures and aims to focus on how the leadership styles of managerial women are perceived and evaluated. In particular, female and male peer evaluations of leadership effectiveness in Malaysia and Australia are to be explored.Design/methodology/approach: Surveys from 324 middle managers from Malaysia and Australia were quantitatively analysed. The sample for the study was drawn from organisations in four industry types in both countries.Findings:&nbsp; Findings suggest that evaluations of female managers\u27 leadership styles in general, and within the respondent\u27s own organisations, were strongly culture specific, especially in Malaysia. The results reflected the strongly held values, attitudes and beliefs of each country. While this is not unexpected, it does highlight a need to be cautious when interpreting Western research results and attempting to transplant those into other cultures. In Malaysia, female managers were not seen as effective in the leadership styles they adopted in their roles when compared to the Australian female managers\u27 evaluations. Such an evaluation may have had little to do with an objective appraisal of the female managers\u27 capability, but rather with a strongly held cultural belief about the appropriate role of women in society, and in organisations in particular.Research limitations/implications:&nbsp; It is suggested that national culture manifests itself in the values, attitudes and behaviours of people. Cultural influences are therefore likely to impact on the way women and men behave in the workplace, particularly when roles of authority and power are evident, and the way in which that behaviour will be evaluated by others. Further research using different samples in different cultures are recommended. In addition, the influence of ethnicity, race or religion in plural countries such as Malaysia and Australia is also worthy of investigation.Practical implications:&nbsp; This research suggests that values and attitudes are strongly culture-specific and therefore have the ability to influence evaluations at an organisational level. Such an awareness of cultural influences should guide appropriate human resource practices, particularly within a globalized environment.Originality/value:&nbsp; The inclusion of a gender comparison in the data analysis in this paper is a significant attempt to add to the extant knowledge of the cross-cultural research. This is a unique contribution because of the omission of a gender perspective in the previous two seminal studies in culture literature (i.e. Hofstede and House et al.). In addition, the findings suggest that culture-specific influences are important determinants that impose expectations on the role of women differently from men in society and within organisations hence, making the gender comparison of the findings more significant. <br /

Malaysian and Australian male and female middle managers : a cross-cultural comparison of workplace attitudes, aspirations for promotion, and self-rated leadership styles

This paper outlines the rise of women in management worldwide, and considers why so few women achieve senior or executive management positions. This slow advance of women into senior roles is unexpected given that the changes in organisations today are believed to require more &lsquo;feminine leadership&rsquo;. A decrease in the emphasis on masculine characteristics for managers is reported, and a requirement that more &lsquo;feminine leadership&rsquo; needs to be adopted by organisations in order to ensure their survival in the future (Powell, Butterfield &amp; Parent, 2002, p.189). Recent empirical research reports that there are differences in leadership style between male and female managers, and the findings suggest that women exhibit more transformational leadership than their male counterparts, with this style being strongly equated with effective leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003). However, these findings are based on western research, and it may be that cross cultural research will yield a different picture (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, &amp; Gupta, 2004). Leadership and leadership styles may be conceptualised differently in a more paternalistic society. To explore this possibility, a cross cultural study was conducted in Malaysia and Australia. It is hypothesised that countries that are paternalistic in cultural values will exhibit a stronger constraint on women in management roles, which may impact on workplace attitudes, aspirations for promotion and style of leadership exhibited. Therefore, it is possible that the career advancement of women may be more problematic for Malaysian managerial women than their Australian counterparts. Results from an initial pilot study in Malaysia and Australia are outlined, and highlight some interesting similarities and differences to what are reported in the western literature.<br /

The role of leadership theory in raising the profile of women in management

Purpose: To consider how leadership theories have helped or hindered raising the profile of women in management and leadership roles.Design/methodology/approach: This paper traces the earlier leadership theories through to the contemporary research on transactional and transformational leadership styles and offers a viewpoint on how each theory has contributed, or otherwise, to an awareness and acceptance of women in management and leadership roles.Findings:&nbsp; In 1990, research began to report gender differences in leadership styles with female managers being seen in positive terms as participative, democratic leaders. More recent work reports that women are believed to exhibit more transformational leadership style than their male colleagues, and this is equated with effective leadership.Research limitations/implications:&nbsp; All of the earlier theories on leadership excluded women and this exacerbated the problem of women not being seen as an appropriate fit in a management or leadership role. Recent findings clearly describe that the transformational qualities of leadership that women exhibit are required by the flatter organisational structures of today. Therefore, a more positive outcome for women advancing to senior roles of management or leadership may be observed in the future.Originality/value:&nbsp; The paper reviews the major leadership theories, and links these to a timeframe to illustrate how women were not visible in a management context until relatively recently. Such an omission may have contributed to the continuing low numbers of women who advance to senior management and leadership roles.<br /

Perceptions of effective leaders : cross cultural influences?

This paper suggests that values, attitudes and behaviours are strongly culture specific. Therefore, it is contended that if culture exerts an influence in behaviours and attitudes of people it will be evident in the way leadership is perceived or traits of effective leadership is distinguished in organisations around the world. In the Western leadership literature, effective leadership appears to be correlated with organisational performance and profitability, subordinate extra effort and subordinate satisfaction with the leader. The Western literature also suggests that the measure of effective leadership at an individual level involve rating &ldquo;by subordinates, superiors and peers and leaders themselves&rdquo; (Eagly, Karau, &amp; Makhijani, 1995, p. 128). However, there is limited knowledge and specific details of leadership characteristics that may constitute effective leadership practices outside the West, nor how universal the Western theories and models may be beyond the Western settings. There is a need to expand the existing knowledge and findings to understand whether Western leadership behaviours and practices are acceptable, appropriate or relevant in other cultures. In order to address this broad topic, the present paper will explore the perceptions of effective leadership in two diverse cultures of Malaysia and Australia. The middle managers in four industry types participated in the present research and the study found differences within and between female and male middle managers in both countries in terms of how leadership effectiveness is perceived and evaluated.<br /

Childlessness and women managers : 'Choice', context and discourses

Childlessness is increasing and might reflect acceptance of diversity, scope for individual choice and a creative 'social imaginary' about being feminine without being a mother. Childlessness also appears to have a contextual manifestation arising from the recognition that the long-hours work culture in many organizations does not support appropriate parenting. A qualitative study of Australian managers reveals the contradictory discourses of childlessness around enlightened equality, maternalism, an elusive, ideal 'work-life balance' and individualism. The article explores a contextually nuanced, dynamic, generative theory of agency which does not hinge on the mother-child dyad, in explaining women managers' choices to remain childless. © Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2006.C

Start up and beyond : Evolving training needs for rural women in small business

The rural decline in Australian industry restructuring and the withdrawal of infrastructural services (ABS, 1998), gives rise to the hope of a turnaround in regional and rural Australia arising from the growth of new business ventures. There has been a trend towards an increase in both small business and the involvement of women in recent years (ABS 1301.0, 1997). This combination is important for a sustainable rural future, and therefore, a greater understanding is needed of how women stand in relation to sound business preparation, and attitudes to professional training.C

Malaysian and Australian male and female middle managers

This paper outlines the rise of women in management worldwide, and considers why so few women achieve senior or executive management positions. This slow advance of women into senior roles is unexpected given that the changes in organisations today are believed to require more ‘feminine leadership’. A decrease in the emphasis on masculine characteristics for managers is reported, and a requirement that more ‘feminine leadership’ needs to be adopted by organisations in order to ensure their survival in the future (Powell, Butterfield & Parent, 2002, p.189). Recent empirical research reports that there are differences in leadership style between male and female managers, and the findings suggest that women exhibit more transformational leadership than their male counterparts, with this style being strongly equated with effective leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003). However, these findings are based on western research, and it may be that cross cultural research will yield a different picture (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Leadership and leadership styles may be conceptualised differently in a more paternalistic society. To explore this possibility, a cross cultural study was conducted in Malaysia and Australia. It is hypothesised that countries that are paternalistic in cultural values will exhibit a stronger constraint on women in management roles, which may impact on workplace attitudes, aspirations for promotion and style of leadership exhibited. Therefore, it is possible that the career advancement of women may be more problematic for Malaysian managerial women than their Australian counterparts. Results from an initial pilot study in Malaysia and Australia are outlined, and highlight some interesting similarities and differences to what are reported in the western literature.C

Revisiting women managers and organisational acceptance

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to revisit earlier predictions by Judi Marshall in 1991 to explore whether similar issues were evident in a sample of contemporary female managers. Design/methodology/approach: Qualitative data from six Australian female managers who had participated in a longitudinal study over a period of ten years were examined. Career advancement aspirations and outcomes were compared with those of male managers, and reflections on the managerial role, and organisational practices were sought. Findings: Examples of organisational resilience "to involve women in organisations on equal terms" were evident in all the six female managers in the study. In addition, even when levels of success were achieved, it could be questioned whether these women could be seen as "definers of meaning (or culture)". Practical implications: Organisational culture appears to continue to create difficulties for contemporary women in management. A system of accountability is strongly recommended, based on a similar reporting programme adopted by the Equal Opportunity for Woment in the Workplace Agency (EOWA) to measure the equal opportunity programmes on offer in the workplaces of organisations with 100 or more employees. Originality/value: The paper is highly original as it seeks to compare predictions made by an eminent UK scholar in the field of women in management in 1991 with the experiences of a small sample of contemporary Australian female managers over a ten-year period in their management roles. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited