Conservation of Galápagos Marine Iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

Galápagos Marine Iguanas are highly abundant along many of the archipelago’s shorelines. Total estimated population size varies between 37,000 and 280,000 individuals. Marine Iguanas have evolved in the absence of major predators, and their populations are regulated by cyclically recurring famine (El Niño) and feast (La Niña) events. Population declines are strongly density-dependent: the higher the population density, the higher the mortalities during El Niños (from 10–90%). Recovery after El Niños is rapid, as females compensate by reproducing younger and laying more eggs. Marine Iguana morphology differs between islands. Seven subspecies have been proposed, although only three major clades can be distinguished genetically. Twelve populations (approximately 74% of all Marine Iguanas) still live in pristine environments, whereas five populations (26% of all Marine Iguanas) suffer from anthropogenic influences. Major conservation problems arise from introduced predators (cats, dogs, rats, and pigs) and from combinations of natural events (El Niño) and anthropogenic disasters such as oil spills. The most recent oil spill in 2001 killed 62% of all Marine Iguanas on Santa Fe Island. Management requirements for the future include: (i) investigating population trends in Western Isabela and San Cristobal islands, (ii) investigating whether harbor areas are population sinks because of environmental contaminants, (iii) establishing a recovery program for oil-contaminated iguanas, especially their reinoculation with hindgut microsymbionts, and (iv) developing husbandry techniques and establishing a captive propagation program as a population backup plan (Marine Iguanas have not been bred in captivity)

Conservation of Galápagos Marine Iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

Galápagos Marine Iguanas are highly abundant along many of the archipelago’s shorelines. Total estimated population size varies between 37,000 and 280,000 individuals. Marine Iguanas have evolved in the absence of major predators, and their populations are regulated by cyclically recurring famine (El Niño) and feast (La Niña) events. Population declines are strongly density-dependent: the higher the population density, the higher the mortalities during El Niños (from 10–90%). Recovery after El Niños is rapid, as females compensate by reproducing younger and laying more eggs. Marine Iguana morphology differs between islands. Seven subspecies have been proposed, although only three major clades can be distinguished genetically. Twelve populations (approximately 74% of all Marine Iguanas) still live in pristine environments, whereas five populations (26% of all Marine Iguanas) suffer from anthropogenic influences. Major conservation problems arise from introduced predators (cats, dogs, rats, and pigs) and from combinations of natural events (El Niño) and anthropogenic disasters such as oil spills. The most recent oil spill in 2001 killed 62% of all Marine Iguanas on Santa Fe Island. Management requirements for the future include: (i) investigating population trends in Western Isabela and San Cristobal islands, (ii) investigating whether harbor areas are population sinks because of environmental contaminants, (iii) establishing a recovery program for oil-contaminated iguanas, especially their reinoculation with hindgut microsymbionts, and (iv) developing husbandry techniques and establishing a captive propagation program as a population backup plan (Marine Iguanas have not been bred in captivity)

Costs of migratory decisions: A comparison across eight white stork populations

Flack, Andrea et al.Annual migratory movements can range from a few tens to thousands of kilometers, creating unique energetic requirements for each specific species and journey. Even within the same species, migration costs can vary largely because of flexible, opportunistic life history strategies. We uncover the large extent of variation in the lifetime migratory decisions of young white storks originating from eight populations. Not only did juvenile storks differ in their geographically distinct wintering locations, their diverse migration patterns also affected the amount of energy individuals invested for locomotion during the first months of their life. Overwintering in areas with higher human population reduced the stork’s overall energy expenditure because of shorter daily foraging trips, closer wintering grounds, or a complete suppression of migration. Because migrants can change ecological processes in several distinct communities simultaneously, understanding their life history decisions helps not only to protect migratory species but also to conserve stable ecosystems.A.F. was supported by the German Aerospace Center (DLR); J.B. was supported by projects i-link0564, CGL2012-32544, and 511/2012 from the Spanish Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, National Parks, National Ministries, and FEDER (European Regional Development Fund) funds. We acknowledge the support of Deutsch-Israelische Projektkooperation grants (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) NA 846/1-1 and WI 3576/1-1.We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI).Peer reviewe

Individual environmental niches in mobile organisms.

Individual variation is increasingly recognized as a central component of ecological processes, but its role in structuring environmental niche associations remains largely unknown. Species' responses to environmental conditions are ultimately determined by the niches of single individuals, yet environmental associations are typically captured only at the level of species. Here, we develop scenarios for how individual variation may combine to define the compound environmental niche of populations, use extensive movement data to document individual environmental niche variation, test associated hypotheses of niche configuration, and examine the consistency of individual niches over time. For 45 individual white storks (Ciconia ciconia; 116 individual-year combinations), we uncover high variability in individual environmental associations, consistency of individual niches over time, and moderate to strong niche specialization. Within populations, environmental niches follow a nested pattern, with individuals arranged along a specialist-to-generalist gradient. These results reject common assumptions of individual niche equivalency among conspecifics, as well as the separation of individual niches into disparate parts of environmental space. These findings underscore the need for a more thorough consideration of individualistic environmental responses in global change research

Seasonal changes in food quality: a proximate cue for reproductive timing in marine iguanas

We investigated the proximate environmental cues that influence the timing of reproduction in the seasonally and synchronously breeding Galápagos marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Marine iguana foraging patterns are closely linked to the tidal cycle, and they feed exclusively on macroalgae. The Galápagos Islands are characterized by seasonal currents that impact water temperature and ultimately algal abundance, which is known to affect iguana body condition and survival. In our study, marine iguanas preferred Gelidium sp., which had the highest nutritional quality (nitrogen content, carbon content, and C:N ratio) of the three species of macroalgae on which they feed. Nutritional quality in Gelidium changed predictably with increasing sea surface temperature, peaking around the median iguana copulation date. Similarly, foraging behavior changed around the time copulations began. To test if consistent relationships existed among food quality, water temperature, and breeding life history, we used seven years of data from this population and found that breeding occurred earlier in years when the mean December sea surface temperature was warmer. Although iguanas might cue directly on changes in sea surface temperature, given the frequency and intensity of El Niño events in the Galápagos, this hypothesis is unlikely. Rather, our results suggest that marine iguanas may use subtle changes in food quality (particularly energy content) associated with seasonal, but annually variable, changes in water temperature as a cue to initiate breeding. The excess available energy may be used to withstand the costly breeding period, as well as to provision yolk to improve hatchling growth and survival

Flight Modes in Migrating European Bee-Eaters: Heart Rate May Indicate Low Metabolic Rate during Soaring and Gliding

BACKGROUND: Many avian species soar and glide over land. Evidence from large birds (m(b)>0.9 kg) suggests that soaring-gliding is considerably cheaper in terms of energy than flapping flight, and costs about two to three times the basal metabolic rate (BMR). Yet, soaring-gliding is considered unfavorable for small birds because migration speed in small birds during soaring-gliding is believed to be lower than that of flapping flight. Nevertheless, several small bird species routinely soar and glide. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To estimate the energetic cost of soaring-gliding flight in small birds, we measured heart beat frequencies of free-ranging migrating European bee-eaters (Merops apiaster, m(b)∼55 g) using radio telemetry, and established the relationship between heart beat frequency and metabolic rate (by indirect calorimetry) in the laboratory. Heart beat frequency during sustained soaring-gliding was 2.2 to 2.5 times lower than during flapping flight, but similar to, and not significantly different from, that measured in resting birds. We estimated that soaring-gliding metabolic rate of European bee-eaters is about twice their basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is similar to the value estimated in the black-browed albatross Thalassarche (previously Diomedea) melanophrys, m(b)∼4 kg). We found that soaring-gliding migration speed is not significantly different from flapping migration speed. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We found no evidence that soaring-gliding speed is slower than flapping flight in bee-eaters, contradicting earlier estimates that implied a migration speed penalty for using soaring-gliding rather than flapping flight. Moreover, we suggest that small birds soar and glide during migration, breeding, dispersal, and other stages in their annual cycle because it may entail a low energy cost of transport. We propose that the energy cost of soaring-gliding may be proportional to BMR regardless of bird size, as theoretically deduced by earlier studies

The Secret Life of Oilbirds: New Insights into the Movement Ecology of a Unique Avian Frugivore

Background: Steatornis caripensis (the oilbird) is a very unusual bird. It supposedly never sees daylight, roosting in huge aggregations in caves during the day and bringing back fruit to the cave at night. As a consequence a large number of the seeds from the fruit they feed upon germinate in the cave and spoil. Methodology/Principal Findings: Here we use newly developed GPS/acceleration loggers with remote UHF readout to show that several assumptions about the behaviour of Steatornis caripensis need to be revised. On average, they spend only every 3 rd day in a cave, individuals spent most days sitting quietly in trees in the rainforest where they regurgitate seeds. Conclusions/Significance: This provides new data on the extent of seed dispersal and the movement ecology of Steatornis caripensis. It suggests that Steatornis caripensis is perhaps the most important long-distance seed disperser in Neotropical forests. We also show that colony-living comes with high activity costs to individuals

Going, Going, Gone: Is Animal Migration Disappearing

Many of the world's migratory animals are in decline. This essay explores the unique scientific and political challenges of protecting migratory species while they are still common