Primary schools at the crossroads : a study of primary schools abilities to implement educational change, with a particular focus on small primary schools

This thesis addresses the issue of primary schools' abilities to implement educational change and focuses, in particular, on small primary schools. A comparison is made between small and large primary schools, in order to determine whether there are differences between the ways in which each have adapted to and implemented changes.Whilst a series of educational changes since the Second World War have affected primary schools the thesis takes 1988 as a watershed date, since the Education Reform Act of that year made considerable statutory demands upon primary schools. The thesis examines, in particular, the ability of small schools to implement changes effectively, since this was questioned following the Act, and it seemed that this might precipitate closures and amalgamations at a faster rate than had previously been the case.The thesis is based upon research over an eight-year period, involving three postal surveys, a series of structured interviews, and a review of relevant literature. The focal point for much of the research is the headteacher, with all of the empirical work being focused on heads, since they have been central to the management of change in schools. Attention is also given, mainly through reviews of literature, to the role of the class eacher and the way in which this has changed in relation to that of the head.The thesis may be divided into two sections. In the first, the scene is set through an examination of the position of primary schools in general, and small primary schools in articular, before the Education Reform Act. This is followed by a review of published research and the author's empirical studies, in order to gain an understanding of the way n which schools have coped with the implementation of the Education Reform Act. The thesis ends with conclusions and recommendations which are based upon the research findings

Laser surface treatment of nylon 6,6 for the modification of wettability characteristics and subsequent enhancement of osteoblast cell response

The control of cell adhesion to synthetic polymers is a key factor in tissue engineering, resting on the ability to direct specific cell types to adhere and proliferate in order to stimulate tissue reconstruction. But often the surface properties are compromised for the sake of the bulk properties, leading to surfaces that do not support sufficiently the level of bioactivity required and accordingly the polymeric biomaterial will fail clinically. Laser treatment offers a unique means of enhancing the osteoblast cell response of the surface of a polymeric biomaterial, whilst keeping the already sufficient bulk properties intact. To this end, infra-red (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) lasers have been employed to modify the wettability characteristics of nylon 6,6, as wetting is often the primary factor dictating the adhesion and bonding potential of materials, as a route to enhancing the surface in terms of osteoblast cell response. What is more, modifying wettability characteristics in this way is a highly attractive means of estimating the biofunctionality of a polymer. IR (CO2) and UV (F2 and KrF excimer) lasers were employed to carry out two different processes: laser whole area irradiative processing and laser-induced patterning. With both CO2 and the excimer lasers changes in the wettability characteristics could be effected with subsequent enhancement of osteoblast cell response. This was also the case with both laser-induced patterning and laser whole area irradiative processing. Essentially, an approach has been established whereby the osteoblast cell response on the surfaces of laser treated nylon 6,6 can be predicted through the laser-induced wettability characteristics modification, particularly for the laser whole area irradiative processed nylon 6,6. This ultimately allows one to determine the osteoblast cell response of the laser surface treated nylon 6,6 surfaces directly from the laser operating parameters. In concurrence with established wetting theory the laser whole area irradiative processing of the nylon 6,6 surfaces caused increased surface roughness, increased surface oxygen content, increased polar component, γP , and increased total surface energy, γT ; thereby generating surfaces displaying reduced contact angle, θ, making the nylon 6,6 surfaces more hydrophilic. The laser-induced patterned samples differed from current theory insofar as the nylon 6,6 surfaces became less hydrophilic due to an increase in θ despite an increase in surface roughness, an increase in surface oxygen content, an increase in γP and an increase in γT . This phenomena can be explained by the transition in wetting regimes from a Wenzel regime to a mixed-state wetting regime. Nevertheless, collation of the wettability characteristics results revealed that θ was a strong correlative decreasing function of both γ P and γT , indicating that surface energy played a large role in determining the wetting nature of the nylon 6,6. It was found that for all laser whole area irradiative processed nylon 6,6 surfaces the osteoblast cell response was an increasing correlative and therefore predictive function of θ and was a decreasing function of γP . To an extent, the surface oxygen content and surface roughness could be used indirectly to foretell the osteoblast cell response of the nylon 6,6 surfaces. This is on account of the CO2 and KrF excimer laser whole area irradiative processing bringing about increased surface Abstract iii toxicity, which above a certain level hindered the osteoblast cell response. For the laser-induced patterned nylon 6,6 samples there did not appear to be any particular correlative trend between the modified surface parameters and osteoblast cell response. This can be accounted for by the transition in wetting regimes. Another important factor is that cell morphologies were modulated over all samples which suggests that varying surface parameters on account of laser surface treatment gave rise to variations in cell signaling. It was determined that θ, γP and γT all had very strong correlative relationships with the cytotoxicity. The cytotoxicity reduced upon an increase in θ until a minimum constant was achieved, whereas the cytotoxicity remained constant at low γP and γT until a point at which the cytotoxicity began to increase. These results are noteworthy as they allow one to deduce that, with constant cytotoxicity levels, the osteoblast cell response appeared to be modulated by the wettability characteristics. But once the cytotoxicity increased, the toxicity began to dominate and so negated the identified positive wettability characteristic correlations with osteoblast cell response. Practically, the surface roughness and surface oxygen content could be implemented indirectly to estimate the cytotoxicity. Increase in cytotoxicity was the result of the laser processing with higher fluences generating excessive melting. As a result of this, it is possible to deduce that there was a maximum threshold fluence, beyond which the toxicity of the nylon 6,6 began to dominate, giving rise to a less enhanced osteoblast cell response. On account of the correlative trends which have been identified between the laser surface treatment, wettability characteristics and osteoblast cell response of nylon 6,6 it is likely for one to have the ability to estimate the osteoblast cell response in vitro. This is significant as it indicates that laser surface modification of polymeric materials could have tremendous potential for application within the field of regenerative medicine

Laser surface induced roughening of polymeric materials and the effects on Wettability characteristics

It has been thoroughly demonstrated previously that lasers hold the ability to modulate surface properties of polymers with the result being utilization of such lasers in both research and industry. With increased applications of wettability techniques within industries there is greater need of predicting related characteristics, post laser processing, since such work evaluates the effectiveness of these surface treatments. This paper details the use of a Synrad CO2 laser marking system to surface roughen polymeric materials, namely: nylon 6,6; nylon 12, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyethylene (PE). These laser-modified surfaces have been analyzed using 3D surface profilometry to ascertain the surface roughness with the wettability characteristics obtained using a wettability goniometer. From the surface roughness results, for each of the samples, generic wettability characteristics arising from laser surface roughening is discussed

Modulating the wettability characteristics and bioactivity of polymeric materials using laser surface treatment

It has been thoroughly demonstrated previously that lasers hold the ability to modulate surface properties of materials with the result being utilization of such lasers in both research and industry. What is more, these laser surface treatments have been shown to affect the adhesion characteristics and bio-functionality of those materials. This paper details the use of a Synrad CO2 laser marking system to surface treat nylon 6,6 and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The laser-modified surfaces were analyzed using 3D surface profilometry to ascertain an increase in surface roughness when compared to the as-received samples. The wettability characteristics were determined using the sessile drop method and showed variations in contact angle for both the nylon 6,6 and PTFE. For the PTFE it was shown that the laser surface treatment gave rise to a more hydrophobic surface with contact angles of up to 150° being achieved. For the nylon 6,6, it was observed that the contact angle was modulated approximately ±10° for different samples which could be attributed to a likely mixed state wetting regime. The effects of the laser surface treatment on osteoblast cell and stem cell growth is discussed showing an overall enhancement of biomimetic properties, especially for the nylon 6,6. This work investigates the potential governing parameters which drives the wettability/adhesion characteristics and bioactivity of the laser surface treated polymeric materials

Influencing the attachment of bacteria through laser surface engineering

Also published in Journal of Laser Applications (2017). eISSN - 1938-1387.Bacteria have evolved to become proficient at adapting to both extracellular and environmental conditions, which has made it possible for them to attach and subsequently form biofilms on varying surfaces. This has resulted in major health concerns and economic burden in both hospital and industrial environments. Surfaces which prevent this bacterial fouling through their physical structure represent a key area of research for the development of antibacterial surfaces for many different environments. Laser surface treatment provides a potential candidate for the production of anti-biofouling surfaces for wide ranging surface applications within healthcare and industrial disciplines. In the present study, a KrF 248 nm Excimer laser was utilized to surface pattern Polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The surface topography and roughness were determined with the use of a Micromeasure 2, 3D profiler. Escherichia coli (E. coli) growth was analysed at high shear flow using a CDC Biofilm reactor for 48 hours, scanning electron microscopy was used to determine morphology and total viable counts were made. Through this work it has been shown that the surface modification significantly influenced the distribution and morphology of the attached E. coli cells. What is more, it has been evidenced that the laser-modified PET has been shown to prevent E. coli cells from attaching themselves within the laser-induced micro-surface-features

High speed CO2 laser surface modification of iron/cobalt co-doped boroaluminosilicate glass

This document is the Accepted Manuscript version of a published work that appeared in final form in Laser Physics Letters. To access the final edited and published work see http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1612-2011/13/7/076102A preliminary study into the impact of high speed laser processing on the surface of iron and cobalt co-doped glass substrates using a 60 W continuous wave (cw) CO2 laser. Two types of processing, termed fill-processing and line-processing, were trialled. In fill-processed samples the surface roughness of the glass was found to increase linearly with laser power from an Sa value of 20.8 nm–2.1 μm at a processing power of 54 W. With line processing, a more exponential-like increase was observed with a roughness of 4 μm at 54 W. The change in surface properties of the glass, such as gloss and wettability, have also been measured. The contact angle of water was found to increase after laser processing by up to 64°. The surface gloss was varied between 45 and 100 gloss units (GUs)