Uptake of <i>Cryptococcus</i> strains by trigger-like and zipper-like structures.

<p>Scanning electron microscopy of <i>C. neoformans</i> capsular strain H99 (A–E) and acapsular strain CAP59 (F–G) interacting with peritoneal macrophages. Improved preservation of macrophage membranes was obtained with routine SEM fixation (A–B; F–G), although post-fixation in the presence of sucrose provided better capsule preservation and allowed visualization of direct interactions between the capsule and host cell membranes, prior to internalization (C–E). Both trigger-like (arrow in A and F) and zipper-like (arrow-head in B and G) uptake structures were observed. Scale bars, 1 µm (A–C; F–G) and 0.5 µm (D–E).</p

Schematic 3D view of the phases of interaction of the trypomastigote form of <i>T. cruzi</i> with vertebrate cells (macrophage).

<p>(A) Attachment of the trypomastigote form to the macrophage surface. (B) The process of internalization via phagocytosis begins with the formation of pseudopods and is followed by the recruitment and fusion of host cell lysosomes (C). A parasitophorous vacuole is subsequently formed. The lysosomal content is released into the vacuole, and the parasite is not affected. (D) In the vacuole, the trypomastigote transforms into the amastigote form. (E) This transformation is accompanied by the digestion of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. (F) The amastigote is released into the cytoplasm of the host cell and divide several times. (G) Following division, the amastigotes transform into trypomastigotes, which show intense and constant movement. (H) The host cell bursts and the parasites reach the extracellular space and, subsequently, the bloodstream. These images were made based on micrographs of transmission electron microscopy and video microscopy.</p

Treatment with both cytochalasin D and nocodazole did not increase the inhibitory effect.

<p>Quantification of the internalization (A) and the attachment (B) to macrophages of <i>C. neoformans</i> yeast cells from capsular (H99 and B3501) and acapsular (CAP67 and CAP 59) strains, in the absence of cytoskeletal inhibitors or in the presence of cytochalasin D and nocodazole. The metabolic viability of <i>C. neoformans</i> strains H99 and CAP59 was measured using the FUN®-1 dye (C) and the metabolic viability of macrophages was measured by MTS/PMS (D) after incubation with cytoskeletal inhibitors for 2 h. Yeast cells fixed with 70% ethanol, and macrophages with 4% formaldehyde, were used as a positive control for the loss of cell viability in each method. Graphs show normalized mean values and standard deviation from three experiments (A–B) and mean and standard deviation from absolute values of fluorescence intensity (C) and absorbance (D).*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.</p

Schematic representations of <i>T. cruzi</i> epimastigote organelles.

<p>(A) 2D and (B) 3D models. These images were made based on micrographs of light microscopy as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy.</p

<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i> Is Internalized by Receptor-Mediated or ‘Triggered’ Phagocytosis, Dependent on Actin Recruitment

<div><p>Cryptococcosis by the encapsulated yeast <i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i> affects mostly immunocompromised individuals and is a frequent neurological complication in AIDS patients. Recent studies support the idea that intracellular survival of <i>Cryptococcus</i> yeast cells is important for the pathogenesis of cryptococcosis. However, the initial steps of <i>Cryptococcus</i> internalization by host cells remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate the mechanism of <i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i> phagocytosis by peritoneal macrophages using confocal and electron microscopy techniques, as well as flow cytometry quantification, evaluating the importance of fungal capsule production and of host cell cytoskeletal elements for fungal phagocytosis. Electron microscopy analyses revealed that capsular and acapsular strains of <i>C. neoformans</i> are internalized by macrophages via both ‘zipper’ (receptor-mediated) and ‘trigger’ (membrane ruffle-dependent) phagocytosis mechanisms. Actin filaments surrounded phagosomes of capsular and acapsular yeasts, and the actin depolymerizing drugs cytochalasin D and latrunculin B inhibited yeast internalization and actin recruitment to the phagosome area. In contrast, nocodazole and paclitaxel, inhibitors of microtubule dynamics decreased internalization but did not prevent actin recruitment to the site of phagocytosis. Our results show that different uptake mechanisms, dependent on both actin and tubulin dynamics occur during yeast internalization by macrophages, and that capsule production does not affect the mode of <i>Cryptococcus</i> uptake by host cells.</p></div

Schematic 3D view of the phases of interaction of the trypomastigote form of <i>T. cruzi</i> with vertebrate cells (cardiac cells).

<p>(A) Attachment of the trypomastigote form to the surface of heart muscle cells. This attachment initiates the process of invasion and is followed by the formation of a parasitophorous vacuole (B). (C) Inside the vacuole, the trypomastigote transforms into an amastigote form and this transformation is accompanied by the digestion of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. (D) The amastigote is released into the cytoplasm of the host cell and divides several times (E). (F) Following division, the amastigotes transform into trypomastigotes, which are released into the extracellular space. These images were made based on micrographs of transmission electron microscopy and video microscopy.</p

Schematic representations of <i>T. cruzi</i> amastigote organelles.

<p>(A) 2D and (B) 3D models. These images were made based on micrographs of light microscopy as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy.</p

Schematic 3D view of the phases of interaction of the epimastigote form of <i>T. cruzi</i> with vertebrate cells (macrophage).

<p>(A) Attachment of epimastigotes to the macrophage surface. (B) This attachment triggers the internalization process via phagocytosis with the formation of pseudopods (C) and is followed by the formation of a parasitophorous vacuole. (D–G) Host cell lysosomes migrate toward and fuse with the parasitophorous vacuole, releasing their contents into the vacuole and subsequently digesting the intravacuolar epimastigotes (H). These images were made based on micrographs of transmission electron microscopy and video microscopy.</p