Liberalising Trade in Textiles and Clothing: A Survey of Quantitative Studies

There is a considerable body of analysis available that aims to quantify the economic and trade effects of textile and clothing market liberalisation. A number of analysts at national and international institutions have provided their assessments. Different tools and approaches have thereby been used to evaluate the impacts of textile trade reform at the regional or global level. Given the economic importance of the textile and clothing sector in some OECD and non-OECD countries and the resulting economy-wide repercussions that changes in the scale and pattern of textile production will tend to trigger, analysis using general equilibrium models has been dominant. The modelling results consistently indicate considerable shifts in textiles and clothing production and trade as the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) is implemented. There is pressure for a large-scale reallocation of resources, with production of textiles and clothing expanding in Asian and other developing countries. In parallel, textiles and clothing production in industrialised countries is expected to contract significantly, while imports of textiles and clothing from developing countries increase. Concerning further regional integration, which has played a major role in textiles and clothing trade during the 1990s, the modelling results predict welfare benefits for the participating countries, while trade diversion is expected to adversely affect outsiders. All the reviewed studies foresee increases in global welfare as a result of ATC reform. But the estimates of welfare gains show considerable variation, with expected annual global benefits ranging from $6.5 billion to$324 billion. Some studies predict ATC reform to account for up to two-thirds of all gains from the Uruguay Round, while others put the contribution of textile and clothing liberalisation at merely 5 per cent. There is similar discrepancy with respect to the distribution of welfare gains. A number of analysts see developing countries as the main beneficiaries of ATC reform, while others expect them in the aggregate to lose from the policy changes. There is also variation in the direction and magnitude of expected welfare impacts at the level of many individual developing countries.Textiles, clothing, apparel, trade, MFA, ATC, WTO

AGRO-FOOD PRODUCTS AND TECHNICAL BARRIERS TO TRADE: A SURVEY OF ISSUES AND CONCERNS RAISED IN THE WTO'S TBT COMMITTEE

This study presents a survey of issues and concerns raised in the WTO's Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, with particular emphasis on discussions related to agro-food products. It thereby aims to provide background information on TBT-related activities during the period 1995- 2001. The participation of OECD and non-OECD countries in the Committee discussions is analysed, and agro-food related TBT issues that might warrant further investigation with respect to their trade and economic effects are identified. The document complements an earlier study on activities related to the WTO's SPS Committee.TBT, technical barriers, standards, agricultural trade, WTO

Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary Measures and Agricultural Trade: A Survey of Issues and Concerns raised in the WTO's SPS Committee

This document presents a descriptive overview of issues related to trade and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, as observed during the implementation of the SPS Agreement. It aims to provide background information on activities in the WTO's SPS Committee during the period 1995-2001, determine the participation of different country groups, and help to identify issues that might warrant further investigation in the context of analysis on the trade and economic effects of SPS measures. Attendance at regular meetings of the SPS Committee has varied from 44 to 70 different delegations. Most OECD countries have always been represented. Yet, half to two-thirds of all WTO members, including a large number of developing country members, have not participated in the discussions at SPS Committee meetings. Indeed, 47 WTO members, including 43 developing countries, did not have a representative at any of the 12 meetings for which information on attendance is available. During regular meetings of the SPS Committee, a total of 105 specific trade concerns have been discussed. Raising an issue makes it possible for countries to attract attention to a particular concern, which might help to avoid disputes between trading partners or potential future trade problems. Of all the specific issues, 27 related to food safety, 38 to animal health, 37 to plant health, and 3 to other SPS issues. Specific trade concerns have been expressed about SPS measures in all 30 OECD countries, and in 18 non-OECD countries, including 15 developing countries. Conversely, 29 OECD countries and 38 non-OECD countries, including 35 developing countries, have raised issues or supported complaints about SPS practices of other WTO members. Fruits, vegetables, and flowers and livestock and livestock products were the product groups most often subject to concerns. In almost a third of all cases, at least a partial solution to the specific trade concern raised was subsequently reported to the SPS Committee. Yet, there might be a number of other concerns that have been resolved through technical exchanges between the affected parties, without this outcome being reported back to the WTO. Even though the transparency disciplines of the SPS Agreement are obligatory for WTO membership, not all countries have so far complied concerning the provision of information on national notification authorities and SPS enquiry points. All OECD countries have reported an enquiry point to the WTO since 1995 and designated notification authorities since 1997, but a significant number of developing countries had not provided this information by the end of 2001. Nevertheless, the number of countries submitting SPS notifications and the number of notified SPS measures increased considerably between 1995 and the end of 2001. All 30 OECD members and 49 non-OECD countries have submitted notifications, with more than two-thirds of the more than 2400 notified SPS measures being reported by OECD countries. More than half of the notified measures were intended to ensure food safety. Up to the end of 2001, there had been nineteen disputes concerning alleged violations of the SPS Agreement. Of these, two had been resolved following consultations, seven had led to the establishment of panels (which in four cases led to the subsequent resolution of the dispute), and ten were still pending. OECD countries have been prominently involved in these SPS disputes. In 16 of the 19 cases, both the country raising an issue and the country concerned were OECD-30 members. In two cases, a developing country invoked dispute settlement procedures against import practices in an OECD country, and in one case developing countries were both the complaining party and the party complained about. Some observers have noted that there seem to be a number of cases where either the substantive obligations of the SPS Agreement or bilateral exchanges in its institutional framework have contributed to regulatory reform. These policy changes might have come about anyway as a result of findings by regulatory scientists that import protocols could be designed in ways to reduce risks to acceptable levels. But the framework of SPS disciplines might have provided assurance that other countries would review their rules and procedures according to the same principles.

1st Report of the Working Group on Standard Development

The initial meeting of the working group on standard development took place at the 1st SAFO-Workshop, September 2003, in Florence. In accordance with the main topic of the Workshop, the discussion was primarily focused on the relationship between socio-economic aspects of the standards and the issue of animal health and food safety in organic farming. The report cover the additional issues discussed in the 1st Working Group meeting in Florence

Trade, Diversification and Growth in Nigeria

Nigeria’s trade policy is at a crucial turning point. Historically, the country has had a very restrictive import regime that generated substantial transfers to domestic producers and strong anti-export bias. Yet, in its current poverty reduction strategy, Nigeria identified deeper trade integration as a means to foster economic growth and alleviate poverty. Border tariffs are being reduced, trade regulations are under review, and ambitious modernization programs for customs services and port infrastructure have been launched. The envisioned reforms involve far-reaching changes to the trade regime that promise to create new opportunities by improving the efficiency of production and consumption, while requiring adjustment of domestic producers to the new, more competitive economic environment.Trade; tariffs; regional integration; preferences; world markets

Trade Policy and Export Performance in Morocco

Morocco’s trade policy is at a cross-roads. Historically, the country has had a very restrictive import regime that generated substantial transfers to domestic producers. In terms of the simple average of most-favored nation tariffs, Morocco is one of the ten most highly protected markets in the world. Yet, with the signing of the Euro-Med Agreement with the European Union and its implementation since 2000, a decision for the gradual opening of the domestic market through preferential trade liberalization was taken. This choice was subsequently reaffirmed through the conclusion of further free trade agreements with the United States and Turkey. The resulting shift in trade policy paradigms promises to create new opportunities for export-led economic growth and employment generation, while requiring adjustment of domestic producers to the new, more competitive economic environment and additional policy reforms to complement the market opening strategy.Trade, tariffs, services, logistics, export diversification, regional integration, world markets

Uganda’s Access to Global and Regional Markets

As a landlocked country in East Africa, Uganda faces two major disadvantages concerning access to foreign markets. It does not have an immediate gateway to low-cost ocean transport, but first has to pass its imports and exports through neighboring countries by road or rail. Nor does it share a common border with an industrialized country that produces the goods and services that Uganda imports and that could absorb a large share of the country’s exports. In this context it is all the more important to fully exploit existing opportunities in regional and global markets, as well as opening new export markets by negotiating trade barrier reductions on a preferential or multilateral basis. These trade barrier-related aspects of regional and global market access are analyzed in this paper. In particular, the discussion reviews market access policy in Uganda and identifies a number of key issues and challenges for the country.Trade, tariffs, regional integration, overlapping agreements, preferences, world markets

Trade Policy Developments in Tanzania: The Challenge of Global and Regional Integration

Over the past two decades, Tanzania has embarked on a marked liberalization of its trade regime. The Government wants this reform process to continue and sees international integration at the global and regional level as a means to achieve higher economic efficiency, productivity and international competitiveness. This study reviews the trade policy situation in Tanzania and identifies a number of key issues and challenges for the country. In particular, the analysis describes the state of domestic trade policy, examines regional integration efforts, and identifies priorities for the attention of policy makers and international donors.Trade; tariffs; effective rates of protection; regional integration; overlapping agreements

Trade, competitiveness and employment in Jordan

Jordan has realized the necessity to pursue opportunities through integration into international production networks and cross-border trade. The country has recently undertaken ambitious reforms of its trade regime. These initiatives comprise the accession to the WTO in 2000, the signing of several preferential trade agreements, notably with the European Union and the United States in 2001, and the pursuit of unilateral border policy reforms. This paper discusses Jordan’s recent trade performance, with special attention to the impact of trade reforms and the country’s special economic zones on employment. Moreover, a set of indicators of economic competitiveness will be examined to highlight Jordan’s position vis-à-vis a group of comparator countries. And finally, some recommendations for the attention of policy makers will be derived on how trade-related growth could be made more job-rich.Tariffs, services trade, incentives, special economic zones, regional integration

Dairy farms: constraints and recommendations for enhancing health, welfare and food saftey (Workshop results)

Results - It is necessary to improve the information to the public (who are the taxpayer and pay the subsidies) about organic farming as a system, that improves animal health and welfare. - Consumers must get accurate information about the organic products they buy. - Producers should be informed about organic farming before they convert (so they know what to expect): they should be told about the regluations and pointed to the available information about organic farming. - Veterinarians should be informed (part of the teaching curriculum in vet schools) about the holistic system, the importance of preventive health management on organic farms and about alternative treatments. - In communication to the policy makers (the government), organic farming should be presented as a different farming system and not as a conventional system with some alteration