13 research outputs found
Elimination of apoptotic cells by professional phagocytes: Generation, release and recognition of the monocytic attraction signal lysophosphatidylcholine and importance of annexin I as a bridging protein in the phagocytic synapse
Die effiziente Eliminierung apoptotischer Zellen durch Phagozyten ist essentiell fĂŒr die Aufrechterhaltung der Gewebshomöostase in mehrzelligen Organismen. Dazu werden von apoptotischen Zellen verschiedene Phagozytose- oder ?eat-me?-Signale auf der OberflĂ€che prĂ€sentiert, die fĂŒr die Erkennung und Internalisierung entscheidend sind. In höheren Organismen sind die sterbenden Zellen und die Phagozyten jedoch oft nicht direkt nebeneinander lokalisiert; deshalb kommt hier der Freisetzung von löslichen Attraktionssignalen eine besondere Bedeutung zu. Als ein zentrales ?find-me?-Signal konnte Lysophosphatidylcholin (LPC) identifiziert werden, das durch die hydrolytische Spaltung von Phosphatidylcholin mittels der Calcium-unabhĂ€ngigen Phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) entsteht. Dabei wird die iPLA2 wĂ€hrend der Apoptose Caspase-3-abhĂ€ngig gespalten. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Prozessierung von iPLA2 direkt durch Caspase-3 geschieht und zu deren Aktivierung fĂŒhrt. Die aktive iPLA2 ist dabei essentiell fĂŒr die Produktion des Attraktionssignals LPC in apoptotischen Zellen. Da die Expression von aktiver iPLA2 in vitalen Zellen jedoch nicht zu einer Freisetzung des Attraktionssignals fĂŒhrte, musste angenommen werden, dass weitere apoptotische Ereignisse an der Generierung und dem Export von LPC beteiligt sind. Es zeigte sich, dass die Oxidation von Membranlipiden, wie Phosphatidylcholin, durch reaktive Sauerstoffverbindungen ein zusĂ€tzlicher Faktor ist, der zur verstĂ€rkten Produktion von LPC beitrĂ€gt - vermutlich weil peroxidierte Lipide anfĂ€lliger fĂŒr eine PLA2-vermittelte hydrolytische Spaltung sind als nicht-oxiderte. Weitere Untersuchungen zum genauen Exportmechanismus von LPC ergaben, dass das ABC (ATP-binding cassette transporter)-Familienmitglied ABCA1 essentiell fĂŒr die Freisetzung des Attraktionssignals wĂ€hrend der Apoptose ist. Somit konnten mit der Lipidoxidation und dem ABCA1-vermittelten LPC-Export weitere entscheidende Elemente der LPC-Produktion und anschlieĂenden Freisetzung dieses ?find-me?-Signals wĂ€hrend der Apoptose charakterisiert werden.
Nachdem die Generierung und Freisetzung des Attraktionssignals LPC nĂ€her aufgeklĂ€rt werden konnte, stellte sich die Frage, welche Rezeptoren die Wirkung von LPC auf den Phagozyten vermitteln. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass der G-Protein-gekoppelte Rezeptor G2A verantwortlich ist fĂŒr die Migration von Monozyten auf das Attraktionssignal LPC. Die molekularen Mechanismen, die letztendlich zur LPC-stimulierten, G2A-vermittelten Migration fĂŒhren, sind jedoch weitgehend unbekannt. Auch eine Beteiligung anderer Rezeptoren an der LPC-vermittelten Anlockung von Phagozyten oder das Vorhandensein weitere chemotaktisch aktiver Signale kann hier nicht ausgeschlossen werden, zumal sich in der Literatur einige Hinweise auf chemotaktisch aktive Proteine finden. Ob diese oder weitere Faktoren im Zusammenhang mit der LPC-vermittelten Chemotaxis monozytĂ€rer Zellen stehen, ist bis jetzt jedoch nicht untersucht.
Die Erkennung und Internalisierung sterbender Zellen erfolgt ĂŒber die Interaktion von verschiedenen auf apoptotischen Zellen vorhandenen ?eat-me?-Signalen mit spezifischen OberflĂ€chenrezeptoren von Phagozyten, wobei diese Interaktion direkt oder indirekt ĂŒber BrĂŒckenproteine stattfindet. In diesem Zusammenhang konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass das Calcium- und Phospholipid-bindende Protein Annexin I von apoptotischen Zellen externalisiert wird, und zwar unabhĂ€ngig vom verwendeten Apoptose-Stimulus, jedoch Zelltyp-abhĂ€ngig. Die Bindung von Annexin I auf der OberflĂ€che der sterbenden Zelle erfolgt Calcium-abhĂ€ngig ĂŒber die Annexin-Boxen an ebenfalls externalisiertes Phosphatidylserin, das ein zentrales Phagozytose-Signal darstellt. Dadurch kann Annexin I die Eliminierung dieser Zellen durch professionelle Phagozyten stimulieren und erfĂŒllt somit die Funktion eines BrĂŒckenmolekĂŒls in der phagozytotischen Synapse. Ăber welche Rezeptoren Annexin I dabei von Phagozyten erkannt wird, ist dagegen bis jetzt nicht klar.
Insgesamt stellen die hier untersuchten PhĂ€nomene wichtige Schritte bei der effizienten Eliminierung apoptotischer Zellen dar, die dazu beitrĂ€gt, dass der apoptotische Zelltod, im Gegensatz zur Nekrose, ohne schĂ€digende Nebenwirkungen fĂŒr den Gesamtorganismus ablĂ€uft. Ist dieser komplexe, mehrstufige Prozess gestört, können nicht-eliminierte apoptotische Zellen zur Quelle fĂŒr inflammatorische Reaktionen werden. In verschiedenen Tiermodellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl Defekte bei der Anlockung von Phagozyten als auch bei der Erkennung und Internalisierung durch ?eat-me?-Signale und der anschlieĂenden Degradation der apoptotischen Zellen Ursache fĂŒr die Entwicklung schwerer Autoimmunerkrankungen sein können. Auch die Entstehung des humanen systemischen Lupus erythematodes und von rheumatoider Arthritis wird inzwischen mit der unzureichenden Eliminierung apoptotischer Zellen in Zusammenhang gebracht.The efficient elimination of apoptotic cells by neighbouring cells or professional phagocytes is essential for tissue homeostasis in multicellular organisms. Therefore, the apoptotic cell displays different so-called ?eat-me?-signals on its cell surface that are crucial for its recognition and engulfment. Especially in higher organisms, where the dying cell and the phagocyte are usually not located in immediate proximity, the release of soluble attraction signals is of special importance. Only recently, the phospholipid lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) could be identified as a central ?find-me?-signal that is generated by the calcium-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2)-mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine. During apoptosis iPLA2 is processed in a caspase-3-dependent fashion. In the present thesis it could be demonstrated that iPLA2 is cleaved directly by caspase-3 and that this processing leads to its activation. The active iPLA2 is essential for the production of the phospholipid-?find-me?-signal LPC in apoptotic cells. However, the observation that overexpression of the active form of iPLA2 alone was not sufficient for the release of the attraction signal from vital cells implied that other apoptotic events might contribute to the generation and export of the ?find-me?-signal LPC. It turned out that the reactive oxygen species-driven oxidation of membrane lipids like phosphatidylcholine is an additional factor that leads to the enhanced production of LPC, probably because oxidized lipids are more susceptible for PLA2-mediated hydrolysis than non-oxidized lipids. Further studies about the detailed export mechanism of LPC revealed that the ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC)-family member ABCA1 is essential for the release of the attraction signal during apoptosis. Thus, the oxidation of membrane lipids and the ABCA1-driven export of LPC could be identified as important elements of LPC-generation and its subsequent release during apoptosis.
After the generation and the release of the attraction signal LPC could be demonstrated in more detail the consequent question arose which receptors might mediate the effects of LPC on the phagocytes. In the present thesis it could be demonstrated that the G-protein-coupled receptor G2A is responsible for the LPC-stimulated migration of monocytic cells. However, the molecular mechanisms that ultimately lead to the LPC-driven, G2A-mediated migration, are not known so far. Accordingly, a participation of other receptors or the existence of further chemotactic signals cannot be ruled out at this point. Moreover, there are some hints for chemotactically active proteins in literature. If these or other factors contribute to the LPC-mediated chemotaxis of monocytic cells is completely unknown and needs to be clarified in future studies.
The recognition and internalization of dying cells is mediated by the interaction between different ?eat-me?-signals that are displayed on apoptotic cells, and specific surface receptors on phagocytes. In this scenario, the interaction can be of a direct nature ore rather indirect via bridging molecules. In this context, here it could be demonstrated that the calcium- and phospholipid-binding protein annexin I gets externalized by dying cells independently of the apoptotic stimulus applied, but dependent on the cell type. On the surface of the apoptotic cell, annexin I binds in a calcium-dependent fashion via its annexin-boxes to externalized phosphatidylserine, which represents a central ?eat-me?-signal. Thereby, annexin I is able to stimulate the elimination of these cells by professional phagocytes and thus fulfills the function of a bridging molecule in the phagocytic synapse. In contrast, the receptors that are responsible for the binding of annexin I to phagocytes are not known so far.
As a conclusion it can be stated that the phenomena studied in this thesis represent important steps in the process of apoptotic cell elimination. The physiological relevance of apoptotic cell clearance is the fact that apoptosis, in contrast to necrotic cell death, is highly regulated at all stages and usually turns out without any harmful consequences to the organism. If this complex, multistep process is disturbed, non-cleared apoptotic cells can become a source for inflammatory reactions. In different animal models it could be demonstrated that defects in the attraction of phagocytes as well as deficiencies in the recognition and internalization via ?eat-me?-signals and the subsequent degradation of the apoptotic prey can be a reason for the onset of severe autoimmune disorders. In this context, the development of human systemic lupus erythematosus and of chronic arthritis is discussed to be initiated by the inefficient elimination of apoptotic cells
Absence of Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling Results in Delayed Yersinia enterocolitica YopP-Induced Cell Death of Dendritic Cells
In an initial period (â€4 h) Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling is required for Yersinia enterocolitica YopP-induced dendritic cell (DC) death. Later (>4 h), DC die independent of TLR4 signaling. In TLR4-deficient DC caspase 8 cleavage is delayed, indicating that TLR4 signaling accelerates caspase 8 activation, leading to DC death
IGF-2 coated porous collagen microwells for the culture of pancreatic islets
Islet transplantation, the only curative therapy for type I diabetes, requires isolation of the graft in highly specialized facilities for its later dispatch to remote transplantation centres. During transport and culture, many valuable cells are lost due to several factors such as mechanical stress, islet aggregation and dissociation. Here, we evaluate a porous microwell array sheet made of natural collagen type I extracellular matrix (ECM) protein as a novel islet culture substrate. This culture platform can be coated with IGF-2, a growth factor favorable for islet survival, and allows segregation of the islets within the porous microwell sheet, preventing aggregation. This design shows promising results for improving human pancreatic islets viability and function during culture and could form a novel paradigm for the transport of islets between isolation and transplantation centres
A Combinatorial Protein Microarray for Probing Materials Interaction with Pancreatic Islet Cell Populations
Pancreatic islet transplantation has become a recognized therapy for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. During isolation from pancreatic tissue, the islet microenvironment is disrupted. The extracellular matrix (ECM) within this space not only provides structural support, but also actively signals to regulate islet survival and function. In addition, the ECM is responsible for growth factor presentation and sequestration. By designing biomaterials that recapture elements of the native islet environment, losses in islet function and number can potentially be reduced. Cell microarrays are a high throughput screening tool able to recreate a multitude of cellular niches on a single chip. Here, we present a screening methodology for identifying components that might promote islet survival. Automated fluorescence microscopy is used to rapidly identify islet derived cell interaction with ECM proteins and immobilized growth factors printed on arrays. MIN6 mouse insulinoma cells, mouse islets and, finally, human islets are progressively screened. We demonstrate the capability of the platform to identify ECM and growth factor protein candidates that support islet viability and function and reveal synergies in cell response
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Development of a standardized MRI protocol for pancreas assessment in humans
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has detected changes in pancreas volume and other characteristics in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. However, differences in MRI technology and approaches across locations currently limit the incorporation of pancreas imaging into multisite trials. The purpose of this study was to develop a standardized MRI protocol for pancreas imaging and to define the reproducibility of these measurements. Calibrated phantoms with known MRI properties were imaged at five sites with differing MRI hardware and software to develop a harmonized MRI imaging protocol. Subsequently, five healthy volunteers underwent MRI at four sites using the harmonized protocol to assess pancreas size, shape, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), longitudinal relaxation time (T1), magnetization transfer ratio (MTR), and pancreas and hepatic fat fraction. Following harmonization, pancreas size, surface area to volume ratio, diffusion, and longitudinal relaxation time were reproducible, with coefficients of variation less than 10%. In contrast, non-standardized image processing led to greater variation in MRI measurements. By using a standardized MRI image acquisition and processing protocol, quantitative MRI of the pancreas performed at multiple locations can be incorporated into clinical trials comparing pancreas imaging measures and metabolic state in individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes.</p