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Experimental and analytical study of condensation of ammonia-water mixtures
The need for more energy efficient power generation and recent environmental issues of CFCs prompted the development of combined steam and Kalina cycle power systems, and advanced ammonia/water absorption heat pumps. However, the working media and associated thermal design aspects require new concepts for maintaining high thermal effectiveness and phase equilibrium for achieving maximum possible thermodynamic advantages. In the present study, a theoretical analysis was carried for the condensation of ammonia/water mixtures on a vertical tube. A set of equations was formulated and a calculation algorithm was developed to predict the local rate of heat and mass fluxes for binary ammonia-water systems. The predicted rate of condensation was compared with the experimental data obtained at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) for a mixture of 90% ammonia and 10% water. The role of diffusion in simultaneous heat and mass transfer associated with condensation was analyzed by comparing the results from three limiting cases, which include equilibrium conditions, and liquid-phase diffusion of finite and infinite values. The results showed that the vapor-phase diffusion is a controlling mechanism
Effects of Cigarette Smoke Condensate on Oxidative Stress, Apoptotic Cell Death, and HIV Replication in Human Monocytic Cells
While cigarette smoking is prevalent amongst HIV-infected patients, the effects of cigarette smoke constituents in cells of myeloid lineage are poorly known. Recently, we have shown that nicotine induces oxidative stress through cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2A6-mediated pathway in U937 monocytic cells. The present study was designed to examine the effect of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), which contains majority of tobacco constituents, on oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, expression of CYP1A1, and/or HIV-1 replication in HIV-infected (U1) and uninfected U937 cells. The effects of CSC on induction of CYP1 enzymes in HIV-infected primary macrophages were also analyzed. The results showed that the CSC-mediated increase in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in U937 cells is dose- and time-dependent. Moreover, CSC treatment was found to induce cytotoxicity in U937 cells through the apoptotic pathway via activation of caspase-3. Importantly, pretreatment with vitamin C blocked the CSC-mediated production of ROS and induction of caspase-3 activity. In U1 cells, acute treatment of CSC increased ROS production at 6H (>2-fold) and both ROS (>2 fold) and HIV-1 replication (>3-fold) after chronic treatment. The CSC mediated effects were associated with robust induction in the expression of CYP1A1 mRNA upon acute CSC treatment of U937 and U1 cells (>20-fold), and upon chronic CSC treatment to U1 cells (>30-fold). In addition, the CYP1A1 induction in U937 cells was mediated through the aromatic hydrocarbon receptor pathway. Lastly, CSC, which is known to increase viral replication in primary macrophages, was also found to induce CYP1 enzymes in HIV-infected primary macrophages. While mRNA levels of both CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 were elevated following CSC treatment, only CYP1B1 protein levels were increased in HIV-infected primary macrophages. In conclusion, these results suggest a possible association between oxidative stress, CYP1 expression, and viral replication in CSC-treated cells of myeloid lineage. This study warrants a closer examination of the role of CYP1B1 in smoking-mediated enhanced HIV replication