Morphology of Near- and Semispherical Melted Chips after the Grinding Processes Using Sol-Gel Abrasives Based on SEM-Imaging and Analysis

Selected issues related to SEM-imaging and image analysis of spherical melted chips formed during the grinding process are presented and discussed. The general characteristics of this specific group of machining products are given. Chip formation phenomena, as well as their overall morphology, are presented using selected examples of near- and semispherical melted chips occurring singly or concentrated in clusters on the grinding wheel surface after the machining process. Observation of the spherical melted chips and acquisition of their images were carried out for grinding wheel active surfaces with microcrystalline sintered corundum abrasive grains SG™ after the internal cylindrical grinding process of a 100Cr6 steel and Titanium Grade 2® alloy by use of a scanning electron microscope, JEOL JSM-5500LV. Analysis of the obtained SEM micrographs was carried out by Image-Pro® Plus 5.0 software to determine the selected geometrical parameters describing the morphological features of the assessed chips

Influence of variable radius of cutting head trajectory on quality of cutting kerf in the abrasive water jet process for soda-lime glass

The main innovation of this article is the determination of the impact of curvature of a shape cut out in a brittle material using an abrasive water jet (AWJ) process as an important factor of the machined surfaces. The curvature of a shape, resulting from the size of the radius of the cutting head trajectory, is one of the key requirements necessary for ensuring the required surface quality of materials shaped by the abrasive water jet process, but very few studies have been carried out in this regard. An important goal of the experimental studies carried out here and presented in this work was to determine its influence on the quality of the inner and outer surfaces of the cutting kerf. This goal was accomplished by cutting the shape of a spiral in soda–lime glass. For such a shape, the effect of radius of the trajectory of the cutting head on selected parameters of the surface texture of the inner surface of the cutting kerf (IS) and the outer surface of the cutting kerf (OS) was studied. The obtained results of the experimental studies confirmed that the effect of the curvature of the cut shape is important from the point of view of the efficiency of the glass-based brittle material-cutting process using AWJ. Analyses of the surface textures of the areas located in the upper part of the inner and outer surfaces separated by the use of AWJ machining showed that the OS surfaces are characterized by worse technological quality compared with IS surfaces. Differences in the total height of surface irregularities (given by St amplitude parameter), determined on the basis of the obtained results of the measurements of both surfaces of the cutting kerf, were as follows: ΔStr = 50 = 0.6 μm; ΔStr = 35 = 1 μm; ΔStr = 15 = 1.3 μm. The analysis of values measured in areas located in the more sensitive zone of influence of the AWJ outflow proved that the total height of irregularities (St) of the OS was higher. Differences in the total heights of irregularities for inner and outer surfaces of the cutting kerf were as follows: ΔStr = 50 = 2.1 μm; ΔStr = 35 = 3 μm; ΔStr = 15 = 14.1 μm, respectively. The maximum difference in the total heights of irregularities (St), existing between the surfaces considered in a special case (radius 15 mm), was almost 20%, which should be a sufficient condition for planning cutting operations, so as to ensure the workpiece is shaped mainly by internal surfaces

Surface topography assessment of abrasive sheets by structured light and image analysis

W pracy przeanalizowano możliwość wykorzystania jednej z metod światła strukturalnego do oceny topografii powierzchni arkuszy ściernych. Przedstawiono krótki opis sposobu tworzenia wzorów optycznych, z wykorzystaniem światła laserowego za pomocą, którego oświetlano badane powierzchnie. Zamieszczono także wyniki badań doświadczalnych prowadzonych z zastosowaniem oprogramowania do analizy obrazu Image-Pro Plus i ImageJ. W badaniach tych porównywano zarejestrowane obrazy powierzchni arkuszy ściernych wyznaczając parametry fotometryczne i geometryczne.In the paper one of structured light method for evaluation of surface topography of abrasive sheets is described. This method is based on projection onto the measured surface light pattern and analysing a degree of defects. These defects can give more information about condition of measured surface. Brief description of method for creating patterns with using source of laser light is presented. The results of experimental investigations leaded with image analysis software Image-Pro Plus and ImageJ was presented also. In this investigations were com-pared images from abrasive sheets marking photometric and geometrical parameters

Analysis of the dynamic range of the signal content in images of scattered light processed by image stacking

W artykule przeanalizowano jedną z cech obrazów wynikowych uzyskanych metodą nakładania obrazów. Wykorzystano obrazy skaterometryczne rejestrowane w postaci sekwencji video podczas ruchu badanych powierzchni, oświetlanych światłem laserowym o długości fali λ = 635 nm skierowanym pod kątem padania równym 50°. Sekwencje przetwarzano za pomocą specjalistycznego oprogramowania o nazwie RegiStax 4.0, w celu uzyskania pojedynczych obrazów wynikowych o uśrednionej wartości luminacji. Dla różnej liczby nakładanych klatek obserwowano wzrost zakresu dynamicznego sygnału zawartego w obrazie. Cechę tę analizowano na podstawie wyznaczanych histogramów luminacji dla każdego z ocenianych obrazów.In the paper the theoretical bases of image stacking and the analysis of one of the features of output images obtained by this technique are presented. The authors used the images of scattered light in the form of video sequences acquired during the movement of the tested surfaces which were illuminated by a laser light beam (wavelength λ = 635 nm, incidence angle: 50 degree). The video sequences were processed by RegiStax 4.0 software. The software extracted automatically single frames from a sequence, aligned them and, then, stacked the images to produce an average value of the luminance. In the result of all these operations a single output image was created. For different numbers of the stacking frames there was observed the increase in the dynamic range of the signal content in output images. This feature was analysed on the basis of assessment of the luminance histograms by ImageJ 1.41 software. The increase in the dynamic range of the signal content in images of the scattered light can make it possible to obtain better information on the surface condition and, the same, correct metrological assessment of this surface. The presented method can be applied to in-process inspection of surface parameters and detection of surface defects of machine parts

Assessment of the cutting tool geometry by the use the bench-type coordinate measuring machine Werth Video-Check ® -IP 250

W pracy przedstawiono zagadnienia związane z pomiarami geometrii płytek wymiennych w narzędziach wieloostrzowych. Dokonano weryfikacji wielkości geometrycznych płytek wymiennych z powierzchnią dogładzającą i z zaokrąglonym narożem. Oceniano następujące parametry: czynną krawędź skrawającą la, promień zaokrąglenia naroża rε długość krawędzi dogładzającej bs, całkowitą długość I = iC i szerokość płytki iW. Pomiary geometryczne przeprowadzono za pomocą współrzędnościowej maszyny pomiarowej typu stołowego Video-Check ® - IP 250 firmy Werth Messtechnik GmbH, wyposażonej w bezstykową głowicę wizyjną. Oceny dokonywano w cyklu automatycznym z wykorzystaniem programu pomiarowego opracowanego w środowisku WinWerth ® 6.21. Uzyskane wyniki wykazały istnienie rozbieżności w informacjach dotyczących wymiarów płytek wymiennych podawanych w katalogach producentów.From the wide group of modern cutting tools we have extracted the group of folded one- or multi-edge tools commonly used in many machining processes. In this type of tools the main cutting element is used in a form of inserts with specified geometrical dimensions. The nominal dimensions of inserts are usually presented by tools manufacturer in the main catalogues. Unfortunately the practice shows that catalogue dimensions sometimes are incorrect. In such case the positioning (assumption: insert bores have definite tolerance) can generate errors in correct orientation of insert in holder bore or body of cutting tool and the same lack of parallel to machined surface. Generated in this way errors can cause the change of geometrical structure of surface during cutting process. Assessment of geometry of inserts before their fixing in holder bore or body of cutting tool is a highly required. In the paper problems concerning with measurements of geometry of inserts of multi-edge tools has been presented. We verified the geometrical quantities, which characterized inserts honed edge bs type and rounded corner rε type. The following parameters were assessed: active cutting edge la, corner radius rε, length of honed surface bs, total length l = iC, insert width iW. The geometrical measurements were carrying out by bench-type coordinate measuring machine Video-Check ® -IP 250 produced by Werth Messtechnik GmbH. The machine was equipped with non-contact vision head. All measurements were carrying out in automatic mode. In this case we used a special measuring program prepared in WinWerth ® 6.21 software. The obtained results show the divergence in data concerning insert dimensions passed in manufacturer's catalogues

Zastosowanie skaterometrii laserowej i analizy obrazu do oceny chropowatości powierzchni mikrowygładzanych elementów cylindrycznych wykonanych z tworzyw sztucznych

In the paper using of one of the optical measuring methods and image analysis techniques for the assessment of surface roughness of elements made of plastics abrasive machined has been proposed. Experimental investigations were carried out on cylindrical microfinished surfaces, which were illuminated by laser beam light. Images of the scattered light formed at screen were acquired by digital camera. All images were transferred into a computer, and analyzed by Image-ProŽ Plus by Media Cybernetics. This software allows for calculating selected geometric and photometric parameters, which characterized acquired images. The results of experimental investigations show high usefulness of proposed measuring methods for assessment of surface roughness of elements made of materials different than metal and its alloys.W artykule zaproponowano wykorzystanie jednej z optycznych metod pomiarowych oraz technik analizy obrazu do oceny chropowatości powierzchni elementów wykonanych z tworzyw sztucznych obrabianych ściernie. Dokonano opisu podstaw teoretycznych rozpraszania światła oraz wykorzystujących to optycznych metod skaterometrycznych. Badania doświadczalne przeprowadzono na powierzchniach cylindrycznych mikrowygładzanych taśmami mikrościernymi typu IMFF oraz ILF wyprodukowanymi przez firmę 3M. Obrobione powierzchnie poddano pomiarom stykowym (profilometr stykowy Hommel-Tester T2000 firmy Hommel-werke) oraz ocenie optycznej prowadzonej z wykorzystaniem skaterometrii laserowej wspomaganej technikami analizy obrazu. Zarejestrowane obrazy skaterometryczne analizowano pod kątem uzyskania parametrów geometrycznych i fotometrycznych charakteryzujących oceniane powierzchnie za pomocą specjalistycznego oprogramowania komputerowego Image-ProŽ Plus firmy Media Cybernetics. Wyniki badań wykazały dużą przydatność zaproponowanych metod pomiarowych do oceny nierówności powierzchni elementów wykonanych z materiałów innych niż metal i jego stopy

Inspection of external dimensions of parts machined by object tracking

W artykule przedstawiono zastosowanie metody śledzenia ruchu obiektów do kontroli wymiarów zewnętrznych przedmiotów obrobionych przez polerowanie, szlifowanie i toczenie. Do badań przeznaczono zestaw 8 pierścieni, które oświetlano światłem laserowym o długości fali λ = 635 nm. Przemieszczenie plamki laserowej na powierzchniach próbek rejestrowano w postaci sekwencji video analizowanych następnie w oprogramowaniu Image-Pro Plus ® 5.1. Algorytm zaimplementowany w opracowanej makro-instrukcji SpotTracking śledził ruch plamki, wyznaczając na jego podstawie zmianę wymiaru zewnętrznego kolejnego pierścienia. Rezultaty badań potwierdziły dużą użyteczność zastosowanej metody i jej niewielki błąd w porównaniu z pomiarami referencyjnymi.In the paper there is presented an application of one of the moving image processing methods to inspection of external dimensions of machined parts. A brief description of the theoretical bases of object tracking, the fields of applying this method, as well as a short review of computer software realising tracking processes are also given. The experimental investigations were performed on a set of 8 rings machined by polishing, grinding and turning. Surfaces of the all samples were illuminated by light beam generated by a laser diode (power 1 mW at λ = 635 nm). The laser spot shift (diameter 1 mm) on the measured surface was acquired in the form of a video sequence by a colour CCD camera. The acquired sequences were processed and analysed by Image-Pro® Plus 5.1 software. An algorithm implemented in SpotTracking macro-instruction tracked a movement of the laser light spot. On the basis of the laser spot shift, the software calculated automatically the external dimension value for each measured ring. The obtained values of the external dimensions were close to the references values measured by a micrometer (the measurement error was about 1-1.3 %). The investigation results show that the method of object tracking is very useful and can be applied to inspection of external dimensions of machine elements under laboratory or industrial conditions

Analysis of the surface topography of diffractive optical elements by white light interferometry

W artykule przedstawiono możliwości oceny i analizy topografii powierzchni dyfrakcyjnych elementów optycznych za pomocą jednej z metod interferometrii światła białego. W badaniach wykorzystano próbkę zawierającą 8 elementów dyfrakcyjnych generujących wzory optyczne o kształtach linii, zbioru linii (poziomych i pionowych) oraz krzyża. Elementy oceniano pod względem geometrii ukształtowania powierzchni za pomocą systemu pomiarowego Talysurf CCI 6000 firmy Taylor Hobson. Zarejestrowane dane pomiarowe analizowano korzystając z oprogramowania Talymap Platinum. Wyniki badań potwierdziły dużą przydatność metody pomiarowej, jak i zastosowanego urządzenia w ocenie tego typu powierzchni posiadających złożoną, wielowarstwową strukturę.The paper presents the method based on white light interferometry - SBI (Scanning Broadband Interferometry). SBI uses a correlation algorithm to find the coherence peak and phase position of an interference pattern produced by a selectable bandwidth light source. It provides both high resolution and excellent sensitivity of the returning light. This method can be applied to ultra precision assessment of wide range of surfaces. Measurements of different types of materials, including glass, metal, photo resist, polymer, liquid inks are also possible to be taken. In experimental investigations there was assessed the surface topography of DOEs (Diffractive Optical Elements). A sample containing 8 diffractive optical elements generating optical patterns in the form of single line, multi-lines and crosshair was used for measurements. The surfaces of the all DOEs were measured by an advanced measurement system Talysurf CCI 6000 produced by Taylor Hobson. The measurement data recorded were analysed by Talymap Platinum software. The investigation results confirmed the usefulness both of the measuring method and the applied measurement system for assessment of this type of multilayered surfaces

In-process inspection of surface texture by optical method

W pracy przedstawiono jedną z propozycji rozwiązania problemu aktywnej kontroli struktury geometrycznej powierzchni. Koncentruje się ona głównie na aspektach związanych z zaproponowaniem rozwiązania, w postaci optycznego układu pomiarowego przeznaczonego do jednoczesnej oceny chropowatości oraz kształtu powierzchni. Przedstawienie koncepcji takiego układu poprzedzono krótką analizą wybranych rozwiązań opracowanych w ciągu kilkunastu ostatnich lat na świecie (rys. 1-2). W dalszej części pracy zawarto szczegółowy opis zaproponowanego układu optycznego (rys. 3) oraz dwóch jego rozwiązań technicznych (rys. 4). Określono ich przydatność w pomiarach aktywnych oraz wskazano niektóre wady i zalety.In the modern manufacturing industry, the automation of measurement operations is most often concerned with the assessment of dimensions whereas much rarely with the assessment of surface texture parameters. This assessment is carried out with the use of various types of optical measurement systems operating in the frame of in-process inspection. The systems for simultaneous inspection of many various parameters of the surface texture (e.g. roughness, shape etc.) are used extremely rarely. Rational development of such systems and the basis of measurement methods allowing for this type of inspection is one of many important problems in modern metrology unsolved in a satisfactory manner. In the paper a proposal dedicated to solving the important problem of in-process inspection of the surface texture is presented. This proposal is mainly focused on aspects concerning the solution in the form of an optical measurement system for simultaneous assessment of the surface roughness and shape. The introduction of the concept of such a system is preceded by a brief analysis of the selected solutions presented over the last few-dozen years in the world (Figs. 1-2). The next part of the paper contains a detailed description of the proposed optical system (Fig. 3) and two of its selected technical solutions (Fig. 4). The suitability for in-process inspection is determined for these solutions. Some advantages and disadvantages of the solutions are also discussed