Eremitism in China to 220 A.D.

Eremitism in China was a product of the socio-political and intellectual changes of the late Spring and Autumn and Warring States period. The basic philosophical presuppositions of eremitism, relating to individual moral choice and autonomy, were first formulated by Confucius, although there existed certain ideas, practices and individuals before him that can be regarded as having prefigured eremitism. During the Warring States period a wide range of philosophies of eremitism developed, philosophies based on varying premises and aspiring to ideals which frequently were antithetical. With the unification of China, first by the Qin dynasty and then by the Han, the socio-political context in which eremitic ideas had to operate changed drastically; the implications of virtuous withdrawal were more serious when there was no longer a choice of rulers to serve. Hence although what evidence there is indicates that most varieties of eremitism continued to flourish throughout the Han period, in the first hundred years of the dynasty there was little Confucian timely eremitism. However, from that time on a new type of eremitism began to develop, which in the Later Han period became highly fashionable. This was Confucian exemplary eremitism, which was a major element in the scholarly culture generated by the imperial backing of Confucianism and the operation of the recommendatory system for official appointments. The social and political standing of hermits also rose as a result of Wang Mang's policy of honouring worthy men in order to establish the legitimacy of his claim to the throne, a policy which was Political events towards continued by the emperors of the Later Han. the end of the Han - particularly the Great Proscription - resulted in hermits gaining even further social and political prestige and influence, and by 220 A.D. most of the major characteristics of the Chinese eremitic tradition had been established

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