Shiga Toxins: Intracellular Trafficking to the ER Leading to Activation of Host Cell Stress Responses

Despite efforts to improve hygenic conditions and regulate food and drinking water safety, the enteric pathogens, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Shigella dysenteriae serotype 1 remain major public health concerns due to widespread outbreaks and the severity of extra-intestinal diseases they cause, including acute renal failure and central nervous system complications. Shiga toxins are the key virulence factors expressed by these pathogens mediating extra-intestinal disease. Delivery of the toxins to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) results in host cell protein synthesis inhibition, activation of the ribotoxic stress response, the ER stress response, and in some cases, the induction of apoptosis. Intrinsic and/or extrinsic apoptosis inducing pathways are involved in executing cell death following intoxication. In this review we provide an overview of the current understanding Shiga toxin intracellular trafficking, host cellular responses to the toxin and ER stress-induced apoptosis with an emphasis on recent findings

Coxiella burnetii Induces Apoptosis during Early Stage Infection via a Caspase-Independent Pathway in Human Monocytic THP-1 Cells

The ability of Coxiella burnetii to modulate host cell death may be a critical factor in disease development. In this study, human monocytic THP-1 cells were used to examine the ability of C. burnetii Nine Mile phase II (NMII) to modulate apoptotic signaling. Typical apoptotic cell morphological changes and DNA fragmentation were detected in NMII infected cells at an early stage of infection. FACS analysis using Annexin-V-PI double staining showed the induction of a significant number of apoptotic cells at an early stage of NMII infection. Double staining of apoptotic cell DNA and intracellular C. burnetii indicates that NMII infected cells undergoing apoptosis. Interestingly, caspase-3 was not cleaved in NMII infected cells and the caspase-inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk did not prevent NMII induced apoptosis. Surprisingly, the caspase-3 downstream substrate PARP was cleaved in NMII infected cells. These results suggest that NMII induces apoptosis during an early stage of infection through a caspase-independent pathway in THP-1 cells. In addition, NMII-infected monocytes were unable to prevent exogenous staurosporine-induced apoptotic death. Western blot analysis indicated that NMII infection induced the translocation of AIF from mitochondria into the nucleus. Cytochrome c release and cytosol-to-mitochondrial translocation of the pore-forming protein Bax in NMII infected cells occurred at 24 h post infection. These data suggest that NMII infection induced caspase-independent apoptosis through a mechanism involving cytochrome c release, cytosol-to-mitochondrial translocation of Bax and nuclear translocation of AIF in THP-1 monocytes. Furthermore, NMII infection increased TNF-α production and neutralization of TNF-α in NMII infected cells partially blocked PARP cleavage, suggesting TNF-α may play a role in the upstream signaling involved in NMII induced apoptosis. Antibiotic inhibition of C. burnetii RNA synthesis blocked NMII infection-induced PARP activation. These results suggest that both intracellular C. burnetii replication and secreted TNF-α contribute to NMII infection-triggered apoptosis during an early stage of infection

Announcing the 2016 Toxins Travel Awards for Post-Doctoral Fellows and Ph.D. Students

With the goal of promoting the development of early career investigators in the field of toxinology, Toxins welcomed applications for the 2016 Toxins Travel Awards for post-doctoral fellows and Ph.D. students. [...

Announcing the 2017 Toxins Travel Awards for Post-Doctoral Fellows and Ph.D. Students

As Editor-in-Chief of Toxins, I am pleased to announce the winners of the Toxins Travel Awards for 2017.[...

Toxins Best Paper Award 2015

In order to recognize outstanding papers related to biotoxins and toxinology that have been published in Toxins, the Editorial Board established an annual “Toxins Best Paper Award”. We are pleased to announce the first “Toxins Best Paper Award” for 2015. Nominations were selected by the Editorial Board members, with all papers published in 2011 eligible for consideration. Reviews and original research articles were evaluated separately. Following review and voting by the Toxins Best Paper Award Committee, the following three papers have won Toxins Best Paper Awards for 2015:[...

Announcing the 2016 Toxins Travel Awards for Post-Doctoral Fellows and Ph.D. Students

With the goal of promoting the development of early career investigators in the field of toxinology, Toxins welcomed applications for the 2016 Toxins Travel Awards for post-doctoral fellows and Ph.D. students. [...

Toxins: State of the Journal Report, 2017

On behalf of the Toxins editorial team, we are happy to report that the impact factor for Toxins for 2015 is 3.571, 5-year impact factor: 3.942, which places the journal at a ranking of 16th out of 89 journals covering the field of toxicology. [...