Synthesis and processing of sub-micron hafnium diboride powders and carbon-fibre hafnium diboride composite

A vehicle flying at hypersonic speeds, i.e. at speeds greater than Mach 4, needs to be able to withstand the heat arising from friction and shock waves, which can reach temperatures of up to 3000oC. The current project focuses on producing thermal protection systems based on ultra high temperature ceramic (UHTC) impregnated carbon-carbon composites. The carbon fibres offer low mass and excellent resistance to thermal shock; their vulnerability is to oxidation above 500oC. The aim of introducing HfB2, a UHTC, as a coating on the fibre tows or as particulate reinforcement into the carbon fibre preform, was to improve this property. The objectives of this project were to: i) identify a low temperature synthesis route for group IV diborides, ii) produce a powder fine enough to reduce the difficulties associated with sintering the refractory diborides, iii) develop sol-gel coating of HfB2 onto carbon fibre tows iv) improve the solid loading of the particulate reinforcement into the carbon fibre preform, which should, in turn, increase the oxidation protection. In order to achieve the above set objectives, fine HfB2 powder was synthesized through a low temperature sol gel and boro/carbothermal reduction process, using a range of different carbon sources. Study of the formation mechanism of HfB2 revealed an intermediate boron sub-oxide and/or active boron formation that yielded HfB2 formation at 1300oC. At higher temperatures the formation of HfB2 could be via intermediate HfC formation and/or B4C formation. Growth mechanism analysis showed that the nucleated particles possessed screw dislocations which indicated that the formation of HfB2 was not only through a substitution reaction, but there could have been an element of a precipitation nucleation mechanism that lead to anisotropic growth under certain conditions. The effect of carbon sources during the boro/carbothermal reduction reaction on the size of the final HfB2 powders was analysed and it was found that a direct relation existed between the size and level of agglomeration of the carbon sources and the resulting HfB2 powders. A powder phenolic resin source led to the finest powder, with particle sizes in the range 30 to 150 nm. SPS sintering of the powder revealed that 99% theoretical density could be achieved without the need for sintering aids at 2200oC. Sol-gel coatings and slurry impregnation of HfB2 on carbon fibres tows was performed using dip coating and a ‘squeeze–tube’ method respectively. Crack free coatings and non-porous matrix infiltration were successfully achieved. The solid loading of the fine HfB2 into the carbon fibre preform was carried out through impregnation of a HfB2 / phenolic resin / acetone slurry using vacuum impregnation. Although the sub-micron Loughborough (LU) powders were expected to improve the solid loading, compared to the commercially available micron sized powders, due to the slurry made from them having a higher viscosity because of the fine particle size, the solids loading achieved was consequently decreased. Optimisation of the rheology of the slurry with LU HfB2 still requires more work. A comparison of the oxidation and ablation resistance of the Cf-HfB2 composites prepared with both commercial micron sized HfB2 powder and Loughborough sub-micron sized HfB2 powder, each with similar level of solid loading, was carried out using oxyacetylene torch testing. It was found that the composite containing the finer, Loughborough powders suffered a larger erosion volume than the composite with the coarser commercial powders indicating that the former offered worse ablation and oxidation resistance than the latter. A full investigation of the effect of solids loading and particle size, including the option of using mixtures of fine and coarse powders, is still required

UHTC composites for hypersonic applications

A dream for many scientists, engineers and sci-fi enthusiasts is of an aerospace vehicle that can take off from an airport, fly through the atmosphere and travel to the other side of the earth at hypersonic speeds, and then return through the atmosphere to the same or another airport. Thanks to programs like DARPA’s Falcon Hypersonic Technology Vehicle 2 program (Figure 1), the dream is taking form

Deciphering Millet Diversity: Proteomic Clusters and Phylogenetic Insights

Millets are renowned for their climatic resilience and possess high nutritive value with wide genetic variations. In countries like India and Africa, millets are part of many people's regular diets with rich sources of protein, dietary fiber, polyphenols, minerals, vitamins, and other nutrients. The proteomic signatures of several millet species, including Fonio, Finger, Proso, Sorghum, and Foxtail millet, were examined in this study. We have performed orthologous analysis to discover both common and distinctive protein clusters among these species by using the OrthoFinder algorithm in conjunction with visualization tools. A total of 16,247 clusters were shared by all species, offering light on similar evolutionary or adaptation mechanisms. The strong representation of Gene Ontology (GO) categories related to osmotic stress, water deprivation, and temperature stresses in the research further highlighted the millets' powerful adaptative responses to various environmental difficulties. Intricate signaling mechanisms for wound, defense, and growth are also revealed by their efficient photosynthetic capacities. However, each species' distinctive clusters, particularly those in Finger millet, highlighted how it differed from other millets. The evolutionary links were further clarified by a phylogenetic tree built using the Maximum likelihood approach and the JTT+CAT evolutionary model, with Foxtail and Proso millets showing a closer kinship. The research sheds light on the complex genetic network of millets, evolutionary histories, and potential adaptive processes. The identification of 2,277 clusters, which are mainly shared by foxtail, proso, fonio, and sorghum millets and support the distinct evolutionary history of finger millet, was especially important. These millets' strong adaptive mechanisms, which are on display in clusters related to different response mechanisms, demonstrate their evolutionary skill and point to prospective directions for crop improvement and resilience techniques

Nano-crystalline ultra high temperature HfB2 and HfC powders and coatings using a sol-gel approach

Nano-crystalline HfB2 and HfC powders have been synthesized through a simple sol-gel route by using inorganic precursors like hafnium (IV) chloride (HfCl4), boric acid (H3BO3) and phenolic resin as a source of hafnium, boron and carbon respectively. The resulting HfB2 powders had an average crystallite size of ~35 nm whilst the HfC powders were ~75 nm in diameter. The precursor gels of HfC and HfB2 were also used to dip coat SiC fibre bundles, on heat treatment, a continuous coating of HfC and HfB2 was obtained. The wettability of the gels was determined using contact angle measurements. The continuity of the coatings on the SiC fibre bundles were characterized using optical and scanning electron microscopy

Screw dislocation assisted spontaneous growth of HfB2 tubes and rods

The mechanism of anisotropic growth of HfB2 rods has been discussed in this study. HfB2 powder has been synthesized via a sol–gel-based route using phenolic resin, hafnium chloride, and boric acid as the source of carbon, hafnium, and boron respectively, though a small number of comparative experiments involved amorphous boron as the boron source. The effects of calcination dwell time and Hf:C and Hf:B molar ratio on the purity and morphology of the final powder have been studied and the mechanism of anisotropic growth of HfB2 has been investigated. It is hypothesized that imperfect oriented attachment of finer HfB2 particles results in screw dislocations in the coarser particles. The screw dislocation facilitates dislocation-driven growth of particles into anisotropic HfB2 rods